MASTER 
NEGATIVE 

NO.  95-82372 


COPYRIGHT  STATEMENT 


The  copyright  law  of  the  United  States  (Title  17,  United  States  Code) 
governs  the  making  of  photocopies  or  other  reproductions  of  copyrighted 
materials  including  foreign  works  under  certain  conditions.  In  addition, 
the  United  States  extends  protection  to  foreign  works  by  means  of 
various  international  conventions,  bilateral  agreements,  and 
proclamations. 

Under  certain  conditions  specified  in  the  law,  libraries  and  archives  are 
authorized  to  furnish  a  photocopy  or  other  reproduction.  One  of  these 
specified  conditions  is  that  the  photocopy  or  reproduction  is  not  to  be 
"used  for  any  purpose  other  than  private  study,  scholarship,  or  research." 
If  a  user  makes  a  request  for,  or  later  uses,  a  photocopy  or  reproduction 
for  purposes  in  excess  of  "fair  use,"  that  user  may  be  liable  for  copyright 
infringement. 

The  Columbia  University  Libraries  reserve  the  right  to  refuse  to  accept  a 
copying  order  if.  In  its  judgement,  fulfillment  of  the  order  would  Involve 
violation  of  the  copyright  law. 


Author: 


Kennard,  Beulah  Elfreth 


Title: 


Jewelry  and  silverware 


Place: 


New  York 

Date: 

1922 


MASTER    NEGATIVE   # 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DIVISION 

BIBLIOGRAPHIC  MICROFORM  TARGET 


ORIGINAL  MATERIAL  AS  FILMED  -    EXISTING  BIBLIOGRAPHIC  RECORD 


Bif«i  nc«« 
254.53 

K36  3 


Kennard,  Beulah  Elfreth,  1867- 

...  Jewelry  and  silverware,  by  Beulah  Elfreth  Ken- 
nard ...  assisted  by  E.  Lillian  Hutchinson  ...  New  York, 
The  Eonald  press  company,  1922. 

xix,  252  p.    front.,  illus.,  plates.    \W^.     (Merchandise  manual  series) 

Published  1917  as  one  of  the  Department  store  merchandise  manuals  under 
the  title  The  jewelry  department. 
"Books  for  reference" :  p.  239. 

Wewelry.        i^utchinson,  Elsie  Lillian,  1890-       /joint  author.) 


(^ 


Library  of  Congress 
Copyright    A  692710 


n 


HFS461.D52    vol.  I 
(3i 


23-2407 


m 


RESTRICTIONS  ON  USE: 


TECHNICAL  MICROFORM  DATA 


FILM  SIZE:    35v</i.a^ 


REDUCTION  RATIO:      '-^^ 


IMAGE  PLACEMENT:   lA   k\\^    IB      IIB 


DATE  FILMED:       ^ 


TRACKING  #  : 


Uc^  A^- 


INITIALS: 


.  HvO 


rvi^H  OkS-^O 


FILMED  BY  PRESERVATION  RESOURCES.  BETHLEHEM,  PA. 


'V^ 


a? 


cn 

3 
3 


cr 
o  > 

?Q  a 

-.m 

fi 

go 

cn 
^-< 

OOM 

o 


cn 

3 
3 


> 

o  m 


CD  CD 

OQ 


X 

< 

N 


M 


(p 


A^' 


a? 


■o 

3D 

m 

o 

CO 

o 

z 

cn 

s 
3D 

m 


> 

3D 
O 

m 

H 
CO 


^^ 


^^: 


3 
3 


cn 

O 

3 

3 


.^: 


> 


'  w  < 


^o 


^^ 


o 
o 

3 
3 


to 


O 


On 


00 


b 


K3 
NO 


00 


In 


O: 


^% 


1.0  mm 


1.5  mm 


2.0  mm 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
ahcdefghiiklmnopqrstuvwxyz  1 234567890 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzl234567890 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 

1234567890 


2.5  mm 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 

1234567890 


V 


%^' 
% 


•^ 


^^ 


i, 


¥* 


?p 


^^ 


C^ 


0? 


'^ 


m 


\ 


ip 


m 

o 
-o  m-D 

SS3: 

>  C  CO 
X  TJ  ^ 

;;  Ooo 

"CO      5 


> 

3D 

o 

m 


Aj>i 


f^ 


c^ 


s.  ^^ 


V 


^ 


Oi  o 

3  3 

3       a 


•   3? 

Is 


"5  2 


'-V 

'*     V 


V 


■vi-.. 


*Af*' 


MERCHANDISE 

MANUAL 
SERIES 


"''   ~f'-"^. 


m 


Ji 


■.WELKfSSIlAtroMI 


KENNARD ■ 


Columbia  (Mnitoewttp 


LIBRARY 


School  of  Business 


ii»f 


I! 


il 


Courtesy  of  International  Studio 

Comb  in  Gold  and  Horn  (French  Design) 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 


JEWELRY    AND 
SILVERWARE 


BY 
BEULAH  ELFRETH  KENNARD.  M.A. 

Editor  of  Series;  formerly  Director  of  Department  Store  Couraea, 

New  York  University;  Chairman  of  Committee  on  Merchandise 

Cotirses  for  New  York  City  Public  Schools;  Educational  Director, 

De];>artment  Store  Education  Association 

ASSISTED  BY 

E.  LILLIAN  HUTCHINSON 

Formerly  Secretary  of  Department  Store  Education  Association 


NEW  YORK 
THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 

1922 


INTENTIONAL     SECOND  EXPOSURE 


Courtesy  u{  International  Studio 

Comb  in  Gold  and  Horn  (French  Design) 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 


JEWELRY    AND 
S I LVERWA  R  E 


BY 
BEULAH  ELFRETH  KENNARD,  M.A. 

Editor  of  Series;  fonnerly  Director  of  Department  Store  Courses. 

New  York  University;  Chairman  of  Committee  on  Merchandise 

Courses  for  New  York  City  Public  Schools;  Educational  Director, 

Department  Store  Education  Association 

ASSISTED  BY 

E.  LILLIAN  HUTCHINSON 

Formerly  Secretary  of  Department  Store  Education  Association 


NEW  YORK 
THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 

1922 


Copyright,  1917,  by 
The  Ronald  Press  Company 


Copyright,  1922,  by 

The  Ronald  Press  Company 

AU  rights  reserved 


\ 


Whisi  ^ertei^  in  Bebtcateb 

to  Mrs.  Henry  Ollesheimer,  Miss 
Virginia  Potter,  and  Miss  Anne 
Morgan,  who  desiring  to  give 
greater  opportunity  for  advance- 
ment to  commercial  employees  and 
believing  that  all  business  efficiency 
must  rest  upon  a  solid  foimdation 
of  training  and  education  gave 
years  of  enthusiastic  service  to  the 
testing  of  this  belief. 


K3&3 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 

EDITOR  OF  SERIES 

BEULAH  ELFRETH  KENNARD,  M.A. 

Pnrmprlv  Director  of  Department  Store  Coutses.New  York 
uS^ershy •  cSSnan  of  Smmittee  on  Merchandise  Courses 
fw  N^w^OTk  Sy  Public  Schools;  Educational  Director, 
for  xsew  }°^^^^^^  gtorc  Education  Association 

CONSULTING  EDITOR 

LEE  GALLOWAY,  Ph.D. 

Sm2S%uc^lioSi>«cr^^h^'?..tional  commercial 
luiiut.  ,  ^^^  Association 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

As  "Department  Store  Merchandise  Manuals'*  these 
books  were  originally  written  for  salespeople  and  were 
designed  to  give  them  reliable  information  concerning 
the  sources  and  manufacturing  processes  of  the  mer- 
chandise which  they  handle.  When  it  was  necessary 
to  deal  with  scientific  or  historical  material  it  was 
treated  as  simply  and  concretely  as  possible  and  the 
point  of  view  taken  was  that  of  business  rather  than 
that  of  the  school  or  laboratory.  In  this  form  they 
have  proved  their  practical  value  not  only  to  the  de- 
partment store  salesperson  but  in  the  specialty  shop. 
It  has  been  pointed  out,  however,  that  the  material  has 
a  wider  scope  than  that  of  sales  manuals  alone. 

As  reference  books,  librarians  will  find  the  short, 
clear  statements  and  full  indexes  invaluable. 

As  an  encyclopaedia  of  merchandise  the  series  con- 
tains scientific  information  in  a  simple,  compact  form 
which  makes  it  available  for  children  and  others  to 
whom  the  subjects  treated  are  unfamiliar. 

As  textbooks  they  are  adapted  for  use  in  commercial 
schools,  high  schools,  night  schools,  settlement  classes, 
and  by  teachers  of  household  arts  and  domestic  science. 


VI 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 


As  source  books  for  practical  story-telling,  kinder- 
gartners,  primary  and  vacation  school  teachers  will 
find  in  them  an  abundance  of  interesting  material  for 
short  "true"  stories  on  the  various  industries  and  crafts, 
the  manufacture  of  household  articles,  such  as  pins 
and  needles,  as  well  as  the  making  of  pottery,  glass,  and 
steel.  These  manuals  contain  just  the  material  often 
hunted  for  in  vain  by  teachers  and  librarians. 

As  household  helps  and  shopping  guides  the  young 
housekeeper  will  find  the  manuals  her  best  friends  be- 
cause they  not  only  describe  the  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses but  tell  her  how  to  distinguish  well-made  articles 
of  good  materials  from  the  inferior  and  badly  made. 
They  also  tell  her  how  to  care  for  the  clothing  or 
household  goods  which  she  has  bought. 

For  salespeople  and  storekeepers  they  supply  the 
general  and  specific  information  about  their  merchan- 
dise which  is  indispensable  to  efficiency,  yet  very 
hard  to  gather  from  the  scattered  sources  upon  which 
they  now  depend. 

These  changes  should  enlarge  the  usefulness  of  the 
manuals  without  losing  any  of  their  specific  value  in 
the  field  of  salesmanship. 

We  wish  to  express  our  grateful  appreciation  to  the 
manufacturers  and  experts  who  have  given  us  such 
valuable  counsel  and  cordial  co-operation. 

Beulah  Elfreth  Kennard 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

This  manual  is  an  introduction  to  the  merchandise  of 
the  Jewelry  Department.  On  account  of  the  scope  of 
the  subject  it  has  been  necessary  to  treat  some  sections 
in  outline  form,  which,  while  giving  the  important  facts, 
has  necessitated  the  omission  of  many  details.  To  the 
orginal  outline  six  chapters  have  been  added  which  treat 
of  silverware,  clocks,  and  ornaments,  but  optical  goods 
are  omitted  and  watches  only  given  a  brief  reference  as 
they  would  require  a  technical  treatment  inconsistent  with 
the  purpose  of  the  series.  Those  who  buy  or  sell  jewelry 
and  silverware  will,  we  hope,  be  stimulated  to  continue 
the  study  of  the  fascinating  merchandise  of  which  this 
is  a  brief  survey. 

Acknowledgment  is  gratefully  made  to  Mr.  Emil  A. 
Kohn,  Manufacturing  Jeweler;  Mr.  S.  L.  Van  Wezel, 
Diamond  Merchant;  Mr.  August  Goldsmith  of  Goldsmith, 
Stein  and  Company,  Manufacturing  Jewelers;  Mr.  T. 
Edgar  Willson,  Editor  of  the  Jeweler's  Circular  Weekly; 
Espositor,  Varni  Company;  and  especially  to  Mr.  Julius 
Wodiska,  the  author  of  "Book  of  Precious  Stones"  and 
to  Mr.  W.  C.  Codman  of  the  Gorham  Company  for 
co-operation  in  securing  accurate  information  and  for 
many  helpful  criticisms. 

vu 


vm 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 


For  illustrations  thanks  are  due  to  the  International 
studio,  Daniel  Low  and  Company,  Espositor,  Vami 
Company,  the  Gorham  Company  and  the  Towle  Manu- 
facturing Company. 


CBAPTXK 


CONTENTS 


PACK 
I 


I    The  Jewelry  Department      .... 

The  Universal  Appeal  of  Jewelry 
Divisions  of  the  Department 

PART  I  — METALS 
II    Gold 3 

Popularity 

Color 

Characteristics 

Source 

Extracting  Gold  from  Sand 

Extracting  Gold  from  Lodes  or  Veins 

Crushing  the  Ore 

Separating  the  Gold  from  the  Ore 

Amal^mation 

Chlormation 

Cyaniding 

Bullion 

Alloys 

Testing  Gold 

Assaying 

Uses  of  Gold 

III    Platinum u 

Rarity 

Color  * 

Characteristics 

Source 

Uses 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

IV    Silver 


PAGB 
15 


Description  of  Silver 
Characteristics  of  Silver 
Sources  of  Silver 
Extracting  from  the  Ore 
Uses  of   Silver 


V    Alloys 

Definition 

Purposes 

Preparation 


18 


PART  II  —  PRECIOUS  STONES 


VI    Grouping  Stones  by  Color  .     . 

First  Steps  in  Learning  the  Stones 

Colorless  Stones 

Red  Stones 

Green  Stones 

Blue  Stones 

Yellow  Stones 

Violet  or  Purple  Stones 

Pink  Stones 

Brown  Stones 

Black  Stones 

VII    Valuation  of  Precious  Stones 

Popular  Misconceptions 

Essential  Characteristics  of  Stones 

Beauty 

Color 

Luster 

Transparency  or  Opaqueness 

Durability 
Rarity 


21 


.      27 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER 

VIII    Descriptions  of  Stones  .... 

The  Diamond  —  Its  Characteristics 

Sources  of  Diamonds 

Mining  of  Diamonds 

Value  of  Diamonds 

History  of  Diamonds 

The  Emerald 

Pearls 

Structure  of  Pearls 

Color  of   Pearls 

Luster  of  Pearls 

Sources  of  Pearls 

Pearl  Diving 

Size  and  Value  of  Pearls 

History  of  Pearls 

Culture  Pearls 

Setting  of  Pearls 

Ruby 

Sapphire 

Amethyst 

IX    Descriptions  of  Stones  (Continued) 

Coral 

Garnet 

Opal 

Topaz 

Turquoise 

Cat's  Eye 

Chrysoprase 

Jade 

Moonstone 

Peridot 

Kunzite 

Tourmaline 

Amber 

Bloodstone 

Agate 

Lapis  Lazuli 

Amazonite 

Azurite 

Cairngorm 

Carnelian 


PAGE 

33 


.    46 


xu 
ckafth 


CONTENTS 


Labradorite 

Malachite 

Marcasite 

Rhodonite 

Smithsonite 

Spinel 

Zircon 

X    Artificial  and  Imitation  Stones 

Difference 
Synthetic  Stones 
Reconstructed  Stones 
"Faked"  Real  Stones 
Imitation  Stones 
Coloring  of  Imitation  Stones 
Test  for  Imitation  Stones 
Imitation  Pearls 
Imitation  Coral 
Imitation  Amber 
Imitation  Cameos 
History  of  Imitation  Stones 


59 


PART  III  —  MANUFACTURE  OF  JEWELRY 
XI    Metal  Working 6$ 

The  Goldsmith  an  Artist 

Making  of  Jewelry 

Grains  and  Grain  Clusters 

Wire  Drawing 

Annealing 

Wire  Jewelry 

Beaded  Wire 

Repousse  Work 

Casting 

Methods  of  Omamentmg 

Modem  Methods  of  Manufacture 

Commercial  Jewelry 

Cheap  Jewelry 


CHAPTER 


CONTENTS 


Gold-Filled  Jewelry 
Rolled  Gold 
Electroplating 
Tinting 


xm 

PACB 


XII    Cutting  of  Precious  Stones    ...,80 

Importance 

Styles 

Facet  Cutting 

Brilliant  Cut 

Rose  Cut 

Step  Cut 

Curved  Surface  Cutting  —  Cabochon 

Difficulties  in  Cutting  Valuable  Stones 

Slitting 

Faceting 

Polishing 

Loss  of  Size  During  Cutting 

Center  of  Diamond-Cutting  Industry 

Diamond  Cleaving 

Diamond  Sawing 

Cutting  and  Polishing  Diamonds 

Cabochon  Cutting 

Special  Cuts 

Cameos 

Materials  Used  in  Cameos 

Stone  Cameos 

Shell  Cameos 

History  of  Cameos 

Imitation  Cameos 

Intaglios 

Scarab 

History  of  Cutting 

XIII    Setting  of  Stones    . 94 

Characteristics  of  Good  Settings 

Tools 

Styles 

Claw  Setting 

Cut  Down  Setting 


XIV 


CHAPTER 


XIV 


XV 


CONTENTS 


Flush  Setting 

Roman  Setting 

Band  Setting 

Thread  Setting 

Settings  for  Special  Stones 


PAGE 


CHAPTBR 


Enamel  in  Jewelry  . 

Characteristics  of  Enamel 

Enameling 

Ooisonne 

Champleve 

Repousse 

Baisse  Taille 

Plique  a  Jour 

Encrusted  Enamel 

Painted  Enamel 

Enamel  Colors 

Transparent  Colors 

Opaque  Colors 

History 


99 


Design  in  Jewelry 

Importance  of  Design  in  Jewelry 

Relation  of  Design  to  Material  and  Purpose 

Use  of  Gems  in  Design 

Form  and  Line  in  Design 

Curves 

The  Foundation  of  Good  Design 

Types  of  Decoration 

Elements  of  a  Design 

Design  in  Different  Countries 


io6 


XV 

PAGE 


CONTENTS 


Bracelets 

Earrings 

Collar   Buttons 

Cuff-Links 

Studs  and  Vest  Buttons 

Evening  Sets  for  Men 

Other  Articles 


XVII     Craftsman  Jewelry 127 

Handmade   Jewelry 

Copper  and   Its   Alloys 

Sources  and  Extraction  of  Copper 

Brass 

Bronze 

Effect  of  Air  on  Copper  and  Its  Alloys 

Methods  of  Decoration 

Metal  Finishes 

Enamels 

Beads 

Methods  of  Manufacture 


PART  IV  —  ARTICLES  OF  JEWELRY 
XVI    Standard  Articles 


117 


Rings 

Pins 

Chains 

Necklaces 

Pendants 


XVIII    Fans  and  Fancy  Bags       .     , 

Types  of  Fans 

Materials 

Manufacture 

History 

Mesh  Bags 

Ornamental  Tops 

Bead  Bags 

XIX    Combs  and  Hair  Ornaments 

Types 

Tortoise  Shell 
Amber 

Horn 

Celluloid 

Manufacture  of  Combs 

History 


.    135 


141 


XVl 


CONTENTS 


dUPTBS 

XX    History  of  Jewelry 


PACS 
148 


Jewelry  Among  Savage  Tribes 
In  Ancient  History 
Centers   of   Modern   Industry 
History  of  American  Jewelry 
History  of  Various  Articles 


XXI      BiRTHSTONES 

Origin 

The  Original  List 

The  New  List 


IS4 


XXII     Suggestions  to  Salespeople  and  Cus- 
tomers        157 

Arrangement,  Display,  and  Care  of  Stock 

Materials 

Manufacture 

History 

Suitability 

Care 

XXIII    Classification  of  Stock  of  a  Typical 

Jewelry  Department         .     .     .     .165 


PART  V— SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


XXIV    The  Silverware  Department 

The  Silversmith 

Divisions  of  Department 

Hand-Wrought  Hollow-Ware 

Special  Tools 

Covers  and  Mounts 

Hammer  Marks 

Polishing 

Commercial  Hollow-Ware 


.    171 


CONTENTS 


CBAPTBK 


xvu 

PACB 


Use  of  Dies 

Drawing  and  Spinning 

Finishing    Processes 

Sterling  Flat- Ware — Hand  Process 

Sterling  Flat- Ware — Commercial  Process 

Plated  Ware 

Plated  Ware  Versus  Sterling  Silver 

Toilet  Articles 

Silver  Ornaments 

XXV    Sheffield  Plate 185 

Rolled  Silver  Plate 

Manufacture 

Making  of  Sheffield  Hollow- Ware 

Decoration 

Design 

Modern    Sheffield 

Imitations  of  Sheffield 

Pewter 

XXVI    History  of  Silverware  Designs     .     .  193 

Early  Silverware 

Period    Silver 

Modern  Designs 

Good  Design  in  Silverware 

Decoration 

XXVII    Clocks  and  Watches 200 

Classes  of  Clocks 

Clock  Parts 

Standing  or  Grandfather  Clocks 

Pendulums 

Compensating    Pendulums 

Striking  Mechanism 

Qock  Materials 

Clock  Cases 

Wall  Clocks 

Regulators 

Mantel  Qocks 

Table  and  Desk  Qocks 


XVIU 

CHAPTBS 


CONTENTS 


PAGB 


Traveling  Docks 

Watches 

History  of  Time  Measurement 

First  Timepieces 

American  Clocks 

History  of  Watches 

XXVIII    Bronze  and  Ivory  Ornaments      .     .  2i5 

Kinds  of  Bronzes 

Japanese   Bronzes 

Damascening 

Oriental    Design 

Imitation  Bronzes 

Ivory  Ornaments 

Brass  and  Dutch  Metal  Ornaments 

Teakwood 

Silver  Ornaments 


XXIX    Suggestions  to  Salespeople  and  Cus- 


tomers 


222 


Care  of  Stock 
Cleaning  Silver 
Cleaning  Artificial  Ivory 
The  Care  of  Clocks 
Knowledge    of    Manufacture 
Period  Silver 

XXX    Classification  of  Silverware,  Clocks, 

Watches,  and  Ornaments    .     .     .  225 


Appendix 

Books  for  Reference 


239 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Comb  in  Gold  and  Horn  (French  Design)      .    Frontispiece 

FIGURB  FACING  PACK 

1.  Garnets  in  Matrix 46 

2.  Examples  of  Gold  Mounts  for  Precious  Stones      .     .    72 

3.  Platinum  Jewelry  Moimted  with  Stones  from  Pieces  in 

Figure  2 76 

4.  Styles  of  Cutting  Precious  Stones    ...     (on  page)  83 

5.  Jeweled    Brooches 102 

6.  Necklace  and  Earrings  of  Brilliants  (Austrian  Design)  114 

7.  Design  for  Lace  Fan 138 

&  Primitive  Wooden  Combs (on  page)  146 

9.  Ancient  Pins (on  page)  149 

10.  Steps  in  the  Development  of  a  Hand-Wrought  Spoon  180 

11.  Steps  in  the  Development  of  a  Machine- Wrought  Spoon  182 

12.  Silver  Coffee  Set  in  Modified  Colonial  Design     .     .     .  196 

13.  The  Great  Qock  at  Rouen aia 


JEWELRY   AND 
SI  LVERWARE 


Chapter  I 

THE  JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 

The  Universal  Appeal  of  Jewelry 

Jewelry  is  one  of  the  most  fascinating  types  of 
merchandise  and  the  well-informed  person  wishes  to 
be  intelligent  on  the  subject.  It  makes  an  artistic  and 
sentimental  appeal  rather  than  filling  a  practical  pur- 
pose. Almost  everyone  welcomes  information  about 
precious  stones  and  is  hardly  less  interested  in  the 
precious  metals  and  the  fine  workmanship  of  the  artist 
in  gold  or  silver. 

The  beautiful  things  associated  with  jewelry  such 
as  fans,  watches,  and  beaded  or  mesh  bags  for  personal 
use,  and  clocks  and  bronzes  for  decoration,  form 
subjects  of  permanent  interest  and  charm. 

Divisions  of  the  Department 

Jewelry  may  be  divided  according  to  purpose  into : 


2  JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 

Jewelry  for  Women: 
Rings 


Brooches 

Bar  Pins 

Collars 

Pearl  Necklaces 

Pendants 

Earrings 

Jewelry  for  Men: 

Rings  (Jeweled,  Seal) 

Scarf-Pins 

Watch  Chains 

Cuff-Links 

Studs 

Dress  Sets 


Watches  (Wrist,  Pendant) 
Mesh  Bags 
Lorgnettes 
Novelties 
Fans 

Combs    and    Hair    Orna- 
ments 


Pencils 
Knives 
Cigar  Cutters 
Cigarette  Cases 
Match  Boxes 


The  jewelry  stock  may  also  be  divided  into: 

1.  Gold  and  platinum  jewelry,  set  with  real  gems. 

2.  Plated  and  novelty  jewelry,  of  rolled  gold,  silver, 
copper,  or  less  costly  metals,  set  with  imitation  stones. 

There  is  almost  infinite  variety  in  the  forms  and  dec- 
orations of  the  various  articles.  They  may  be  elab- 
orately designed  and  set  with  precious  stones  or  plainly 
chased  and  simple.  But  the  one  requirement  of  all 
jewelry  is  that  it  should  be  beautiful. 


Part  I— Metals 


Chapter  II 

GOLD 

Popularity 

Gold  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  metals.  It  is  soft 
and  easily  worked,  and  combines  artistically  with  any 
color  found  in  precious  stones.  Silver  and  platinum 
are  also  used  for  jewelry,  and  copper  and  bronze  are 
seen  in  "  craftsman's  *'  work,  but  gold  is  used  more 
than  all  the  others  combined. 

Color 

Pure  gold  is  pale  yellow  with  a  bright  luster,  but  by 
combination  with  other  metals  in  the  form  of  alloys 
it  may  be  given  a  darker  yellow  tone  or  a  green,  gray, 
or  red  hue.  Gold  can  also  be  made  to  resemble  plati- 
num in  color.     This  variety  is  called  "  white  gold.'' 

Characteristics 

Gold  is: 
Malleable  —  may  be  beaten  into  thin  sheets. 

3 


4  JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 

Ductile  —  may  be  drawn  into  fine  wire. 

Unalterable  —  does  not  corrode,  as  iron  and  cop- 
per, on  exposure  to  the  air. 

Dense  —  the  particles  are  very  close  together. 

Soft  —  easily  wears  away  and  must  be  hardened 
by  the  addition  of  copper,  silver,  etc. 

Gold  may  be  beaten  into  a  sheet  1/250,000  of  an 
inch  in  thickness.  In  this  form  it  is  known  as  gold 
leaf,  and  is  used  for  gilding. 

Source 

Gold  is  found  in  small  quantities  all  over  the  world. 
The  rocks  and  soil  of  nearly  all  countries,  and  even 
the  waters  of  the  ocean,  contain  small  particles  of  gold 
scattered  through  them.  The  Australian  and  Cali- 
fornian  deposits  are  remarkably  pure. 


Gold   is    found   in 


"  ore  " 


or   in   "barren   rock." 


These  differ  only  in  the  proportion  of  gold  which  they 
contain.  Ore  is  "paying  rock,"  that  is,  rock  which 
has  enough  gold  in  it  to  make  its  extraction  and  re- 
fining profitable.  With  the  improvements  in  methods 
of  gold  mining,  barren  rock  may  become  paying  rock 
and  the  poorer  fields  must  be  worked  as  the  richer 
ones  give  out.  Gold,  like  iron,  is  a  part  of  the  earth's 
crust,  but  is  unevenly  distributed.  At  present,  the 
rich  ores  are  very  rare,  because  it  has  been  prized  by 
man  in  every  part  of  the  world,  and  as  a  result  the 


GOLD  5 

ore  which  could  be  secured  by  such  simple  methods  as 
washing  river  sands  has  disappeared,  except  in  out-of- 
the-way  places.     Gold  is  found  under  three  conditions : 

1.  As  a  deposit  in  the  sands  of  rivers. 

2.  As  lodes  or  veins. 

3.  As  sedimentary  deposits. 

Extracting  Gold  from  Sand 

The  gold  which  is  found  in  river  sand  is  most 
easily  secured.  It  is  separated  from  the  sand  by 
various  methods  of  washing. 

1.  The  sand  may  be  washed  in  a  wooden  tub,  or 
iron  basin  which  is  shaken  to  and  fro  by  hand  until 
the  gold  (being  heavier  than  sand)  falls  to  the  bottom. 

2.  The  gold  may  be  separated  by  a  flowing  stream 
of  water  which  removes  the  sand,  the  gold  being 
caught  on  some  obstruction.  There  are  two  variations 
of  this  method. 

For  large  operations  the  sand  or  gravel  may  be  put 
in  a  long  trough  called  a  "  sluice  "  through  which  a 
stream  of  water  runs.  The  gold  falls  to  the  bottom 
and  is  caught  on  cross  strips  of  wood  called  "  riffles," 
while  the  sand  is  carried  off  by  the  water.  For 
smaller  operations  the  gravel  is  thrown  into  a  current 
of  water  in  a  "  Long  Tom,"  which  is  a  box  about  four 
yards  long  and  seven  inches  broad.  The  gold  is 
caught  on  riffles  or  on  sheep's  fleece. 


m 
1 


6  JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 

These  methods  of  collecting  gold  are  slow  and 
wasteful,  but  are  profitable  so  long  as  a  rich  deposit 
lasts. 

3.  The  Hydraulic  Method.  The  hills  in  certain 
parts  of  California  were  found  to  contain  a  large 
amount  of  gold,  and  in  1852  a  new  method  of  reduc- 
ing these  hills  was  introduced.  Instead  of  slowly 
digging  up  the  soil,  the  mining  companies  erected  a 
high  steel  framework  or  "  giant "  supporting  a  hose 
pipe  through  which  water  was  driven  at  very  high 
pressure  against  the  sides  of  the  hills.  This  stream 
of  water  was  extremely  powerful.  It  sent  a  torrent 
of  mud  down  into  the  valley  below,  where  the  mud 
flowed  through  sluices,  and  the  gold  was  caught  in  the 
same  way  as  from  the  river  sand. 

The  hydraulic  method  had  two  great  objections: 
first,  the  mud  dammed  up  the  valleys  and  destroyed 
land  which  was  good  for  farming  or  fruit  raising ;  and 
second,  the  debris  was  left  on  the  land. 

In  1884  a  law  was  passed  prohibiting  hydraulic 
mining  in  California,  but  it  is  still  practiced  in  some 
other  states. 

In  the  frozen  regions  of  Siberia  and  the  Klondike 
the  ground  is  too  hard  to  be  broken  up  by  the  pick 
and  therefore  fires  are  built  or  steam  pipes  are  inserted 
in  order  to  melt  the  ice  before  the  actual  mining  can 
begin. 


\^\ 


GOLD  7 

Extracting  Gold  from  Lodes  or  Veins 

Gold  which  is  found  in  lodes  or  veins  has  been 
carried  up  from  a  lower  part  of  the  earth's  crust  by 
hot  volcanic  vapors.  The  metal,  which  had  dissolved 
in  the  hot  water,  crystallized  and  was  deposited  in 
veins. 

These  lodes  may  be  vertical,  slanting,  or  horizontal. 
They  are  mined  in  the  same  way  as  other  metals,  by 
sinking  shafts  with  connecting  galleries.  In  a  gold 
mine,  however,  no  part  of  the  paying  rock  is  left  for 
supports  or  chamber  walls  as  in  coal  mines.  As  the 
various  sections  are  removed  the  space  is  filled  with  a 
wooden  framework  containing  crushed  rock  until  the 
ore  has  been  entirely  replaced. 


Crushing  the  Ore 

Gold  is  seldom  found  in  the  pure  state.  It  may  be 
combined  with  iron,  silver,  tourmaline,  copper,  galena, 
sulphur,  or  other  substances.  In  order  to  separate  it 
from  the  rock,  the  ore  must  first  be  crushed  into  pow- 
der. If  the  gold  is  "  free  "  or  unmixed  with  quartz, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  reduce  the  rock  to  such  fineness. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  machines  used  for  crush- 
ing the  ore : 

I.  The  jaw  breaker,  which  has  two  steel  jaws  with 
toothed  edges.     One  of  these  jaws  is  sta- 


t 


If' 


8  JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 

tionary  and  the  other  moves  backward  and 
forward  over  it. 

2.  Vertical  stamps  in  batteries,  which  are  raised 

by  a  cam  shaft  and  fall  with  a  deafening  din 
upon  the  ore  which  is  contained  in  an  iron 
mortar. 

3.  The  tube  mill  is  a  large  cylinder  containing 

crushing  materials  which  grind  the  ore  still 
finer. 

Separating  the  Gold  from  the  Ore 

There  are  three  methods  of  separating  the  gold  from 
this  crushed  ore.     These  are : 
Amalgamation 
Chlorination 
Cyaniding 

Amalgamation 

The  amalgamation  process  depends  upon  the  ease 
with  which  mercury  and  gold  combine. 

The  crushed  ore  or  "  pulp  *'  is  mixed  with  water 
and  run  over  copper  plates  coated  with  mercury  to 
which  the  gold  adheres.  The  combined  gold  and  mer- 
cury —  called  amalgam  —  is  scraped  off  and  the  gold 
separated  from  the  mercury  by  distillation. 

Chlorination 

In  the  chlorination  process  the  crushed  rock   is 


GOLD  9 

roasted,  mixed  with  water,  and  exposed  to  the  action 
of  chlorine  gas,  which  is  obtained  from  common  salt 
by  an  electrical  process.  The  chlorine  and  gold  unite, 
and  the  gold  is  precipitated  from  this  solution. 

Cyaniding 

Cyaniding  is  the  most  economical  method  and  has 
almost  entirely  superseded  the  others.  The  crushed 
ore  is  dissolved  in  a  very  dilute  solution  of  potassium 
cyanide.  The  gold  is  precipitated  from  this  solution 
either  by  electricity  or  by  zinc. 

Bullion 

These  processes  complete  the  work  which  is  done 
at  the  mine  or  gold  field.  The  metal,  whicn  is  now 
called  bullion,  is  then  sent  to  some  center  in  Europe  or 
America  to  be  further  refined. 

Alloys 

Manufacturing  jewelers  buy  their  gold  in  bars  by  the 
ounce  and  alloy  *  it  themselves. 

As  stated  earlier  in  the  chapter,  when  gold  is  com- 
bined with  other  metals  to  form  an  alloy,  its  color  is 
affected.  Silver  makes  it  lighter  in  color  and  copper 
gives  it  a  reddish  hue.  Alloys  of  gold,  in  addition  to 
being  different  in  color,  are  naturally  cheaper  than  pure 
gold,  and  they  are  also  harder. 

1  For  a  further  discussion  of  alloys,  see  Chapter  V. 


■-  j]L.'  trii.i'w»<*  t^ifip^Z  ">'• "'  *ai  '^ 


lO 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Pure  or  "  fine  "  gold  is  described  as  "  24  karats  fine." 
The  karat  is  a  standard  of  weight  for  the  precious 
metals  and  gems,  but  it  has  a  special  significance  with 
respect  to  gold.  Twenty- four  karats  fine  means  that 
gold  has  no  alloy  whatever;  but  such  gold  is  too  soft 
for  use.  Twenty-two  karat  gold  has  2  parts  alloy  and 
22  parts  gold.  Old  jewelry  was  usually  of  22  karat 
gold.  Eighteen  and  14  karat  gold  are  now  much  used, 
and  the  gold  used  in  cheaper  jewelry  is  only  10  karat 
gold,  that  is,  more  than  half  its  weight  is  some  other 
metal.  As  these  cheaper  alloys  contain  a  larger 
amount  of  copper  than  the  finer  forms,  they  are  easily 
affected  by  acids  and  have  a  less  brilliant  luster. 

Testing  Gold 

Jewelers  have  a  simple  method  of  testing  the  fineness 
of  gold  by  the  use  of  a  hard  black  stone  called  a 
"  touchstone."  The  piece  to  be  tested  is  rubbed  on  the 
stone.  It  leaves  a  little  streak  of  metal  behind,  the 
color  of  which  is  compared  with  that  of  a  streak  made 
by  gold  of  known  quality.  The  touchstone  method  is 
easy  but  is  not  absolutely  accurate.  Gold  is  also  tested 
with  nitric  acid. 

Assaying 

The  scientific  testing  of  the  quality  of  gold  is  done  by 
a  process  of  analytical  chemistry  called  assaying.    First, 


GOLD 


II 


a  very  small  portion  of  the  gold  is  weighed  in  a  delicate 
balance.  Then  it  is  wrapped  in  pure  sheet  lead  and 
heated.  The  lead  unites  with  all  baser  metals  as  it 
melts  and  this  combination  runs  away,  leaving  only  a 
lump  of  pure  gold  and  silver.  This  lump  is  weighed 
again  to  see  how  much  base  metal  it  had  contained, 
after  which  the  silver  is  removed  with  nitric  acid  and 
only  the  pure  gold  is  left.  The  difference  between 
the  weight  of  this  remainder  and  the  lump  containing 
silver  determines  the  weight  of  the  gold.  It  can  be 
calculated  to  a  thousandth  part  of  a  karat. 

Uses  of  Gold 

In  spite  of  the  new  gold  fields  which  have  been  dis- 
covered from  time  to  time,  the  world  has  never  had 
enough  gold.  The  insistent  demand  keeps  its  price 
steady  and  helps  to  make  it  the  standard  for  other 
values. 

Gold  is  used  in  dentistry,  in  chemical  works  and 
photography,  as  well  as  in  gilding  and  making  all  kinds 
of  lacquers.  Nearly  one-half  of  the  output  is  used 
for  money.  Several  years  ago  it  was  estimated  that 
in  the  United  States  24  per  cent  was  used  for  jewelry, 
10  per  cent  for  watch  cases,  44  per  cent  for  coinage, 
and  about  22  per  cent  for  export  and  for  other  pur- 
poses. 


rv 


f ' 


Chapter  III 

PLATINUM 

Rarity 

The  most  costly  of  all  useful  metals  is  platinum, 
which  in  normal  times  is  about  two  and  one-half  times 
as  valuable  as  gold.  Platinum  vj3lz  at  one  time  con- 
sidered impure  silver  —  only  fifty  years  ago  Russian 
peasants  wore  buttons  of  platinum  on  their  clothes  — 
but  when  its  peculiar  properties  became  known  it  began 
to  be  greatly  prized  because  of  its  rarity. 

Color 

The  color  of  platinum  is  a  glistening  blue  white.  It 
is  now  in  greater  favor  than  gold  for  setting  diamonds 
and  other  jewels,  as  it  seems  to  increase  their  bril- 
liancy. 

Characteristics 

Platinum  is: 

Malleable  and  ductile  to  a  high  degree. 

Less  affected  by  acids  than  gold. 

Dense. 

Soft  as  silver. 

13 


PLATINUM 


13 


Platinum  does  not  oxidize  at  any  temperature,  and 
melts  only  at  a  very  high  temperature.  An  oxygen 
torch  which  produces  very  intense  heat  is  needed  for 
this  purpose. 

Source 

Platinum  is  found  chiefly  in  the  Ural  Mountains 
in  Russia,  but  it  appears  also  in  Canada,  New  South 
Wales,  Colombia,  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  the  United 
States,  and  there  are  traces  of  it  in  Lapland,  Norway, 
and  Ireland.  Russia,  however,  has  more  than  twenty 
times  as  much  platinum  as  has  been  found  in  the  rest 
of  the  world  and  the  metal  is  found  in  a  form  that 
may  be  easily  worked. 

Uses 

The  use  of  platinum  for  fine  jewelry  is  only  limited 
by  the  supply  of  this  rare  metal.  Large  quantities  are 
also  used  in  dentistry,  for  incandescent  lamps,  and  for 
electric  and  scientific  instruments. 

Its  indestructibility  has  made  it  the  ideal  material 
for  crucibles  and  dishes  in  chemical  laboratories. 
Articles  made  of  platinum  are  all  marked  and  the 
mark  is  recorded  together  with  the  weight  so  that 
they  may  be  recovered  if  stolen.  The  extreme  diffi- 
culty with  which  platinum  is  melted  makes  its  detec- 
tion comparatively  sure.     During  the  European  War 


I ; 


I- 


• 


14 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


it  was  so  much  needed  for  munitions  that  all  other 
uses  were  restricted  and  jewelers  were  asked  to  dis- 
continue the  manufacture  of  platinum  jewelry.  After 
the  war  a  certain  amount  of  platinum  was  released, 
but  the  unsettled  condition  of  Russia  still  cut  off  the 
major  source  of  supply.  The  price  continued  to 
advance.  While  in  1918  platinum  was  worth  five 
times  as  much  as  gold,  in  October,  1920,  it  was  worth 
seven  times  as  much. 

In  order  to  meet  the  scarcity  of  platinum  it  is  some- 
times alloyed  with  palladium  or  iridium,  two  metals 
of  the  platinum  group  which  are  also  very  rare  and 
costly.  White  gold,  which  is  substituted  for  platinum 
in  jewelry,  is  only  superficially  like  it  and  is  far  less 

durable. 

In  September,  1920,  a  law  was  passed  in  New  York 
State  requiring  that  all  articles  marked  "platinum" 
must  assay  .925  fine  of  metals  of  the  platinum  group. 


Chapter  IV 

SILVER 

Description  of  Silver 

Silver  is  a  brilliant  white  metal  which  sometimes  oc- 
curs in  nature  in  the  form  of  twisted  wire-like  deposits 
in  the  upper  levels  of  silver-bearing  minerals.  It  is 
usually  associated  with  gold,  sulphur,  or  lead,  and 
these  silver  ores  are  more  important  than  native  silver 
deposits.  It  is  the  most  common  of  the  precious  metals 
and  is  easily  separated  from  its  alloys. 

Characteristics  of  Silver 
Silver  is: 

Harder  than  gold,  but  too  soft  to  use  without  being 
alloyed  with  copper  or  some  other  metal. 

Malleable  and  ductile. 

The  best  conductor  of  heat  among  all  of  the 
metals. 

Tarnished  by  sulphur  compounds,  but  unaffected 
by  pure  air. 

Sources  of  Silver 

Mexico  and  Peru  furnish  a  large  part  of  the  world's 

IS 


i6 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


silver,  but  in  recent  years  the  United  States  and  Canada 
have  produced  the  largest  amount.  Silver  is  also 
mined  extensively  in  Cornwall,  England,  and  in 
Central  Europe,  Asia,  Australia,  and  Africa. 

Extracting  from  the  Ore 

Silver  ore  from  the  mines  is  crushed  with  batteries 
of  stamps,  then  mixed  with  water  and  shaken  on  tables 
or  in  agitators  which  cause  the  heavier  metal  to  fall 
to  the  bottom.  The  pulp  is  passed  over  a  magnetic 
pulley,  which  draws  out  the  steel  and  iron,  and  is 
"dewatered"  by  means  of  screens.  The  process  of 
crushing,  mixing  with  water,  and  concentrating  is 
repeated  until  the  ore  is  very  fine,  being  finally  ground 
in  a  tube  mill  (see  page  8).  It  is  then  cyanided  to 
extract  it  from  metallic  compounds  and  precipitated 
as  a  silver  sulphide.  For  the  process  of  desulphurizing 
it  is  put  in  revolving  cylinders  filled  with  ingots  of 
aluminum.  The  motion  of  the  cylinders  produces 
hydrogen,  which  extracts  the  sulphur. 

Another  method  of  separating  the  metallic  ore  from 
the  rock  is  called  "flotation."  When  the  ore  has  been 
crushed  and  mixed  with  water  a  quantity  of  oil  is 
added  and  the  slimy  pulp  is  floated  over  water  in 
"flotation  cones."  The  oil  attaches  itself  to  the 
mineral,  enclosing  tiny  air  bubbles  which  cause  it  to 
rise  to  the  surface  of  the  water  where  it  is  skimmed 


SILVER 


17 


off.  The  mass  flows  through  a  series  of  compart- 
ments where  this  process  is  repeated.  By  alternately 
shaking  it  so  that  it  is  thoroughly  aerated  and  allowing 
it  to  settle  while  the  froth  rises  to  the  surface,  all  the 
metal  is  recovered.  This  method  requires  less  space 
and  less  elaborate  machinery  than  the  ordinary  process. 

Uses  of  Silver 

Besides  the  use  of  silver  in  jewelry  and  silverware 
and  as  an  alloy  of  gold  it  is  valuable  in  commerce,  art, 
and  science.  An  alloy  of  silver  is  used  in  filling  teeth 
and  a  solution  of  silver  makes  the  only  true  "stain" 
for  glass,  producing  a  beautiful  golden  yellow. 

The  women  of  India  and  other  eastern  countries  are 
loaded  with  silver  jewelry  from  their  filigree  head- 
dresses to  their  silver  anklets  which  sometimes  weigh 
twenty  ounces  each.  Long  silver  chains  are  worn  in 
Scandinavia  and  Russia.  In  the  Balkans,  Persia,  and 
Japan,  silver  is  used  to  ornament  weapons  and  the 
temples  of  India  have  silver-plated  doors  and  domes. 

The  chief  use  of  the  metal  is  in  coinage.  Many 
countries  employ  it  instead  of  gold  as  the  standard  of 
values. 

Sterling  silver  has  the  same  proportion  of  alloy  as 
United  States  coins,  that  is,  92  J^  per  cent  pure  silver 
and  7J^  per  cent  of  alloy. 


Chapter  V 

ALLOYS 

Definition 

An  alloy  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more  metals 
produced  by  fusion.  An  alloy  of  gold,  platinum,  or 
silver  means  a  combination  of  gold,  platinum,  or  silver 
with  any  of  the  baser  metals. 

The  metals  chiefly  used  in  alloying  the  precious 

metals  are : 

With  gold  —  silver,  copper,  or  nickel. 
With  silver  —  tin,  zinc,  lead,  or  copper. 
With  platinum  —  palladium,  iridium,  or  silver. 

Purposes 

When  metals  are  alloyed,  their  good  qualities  seem 
to  combine.  When  copper,  silver,  or  nickel  are  added 
to  gold,  they  increase  its  strength  and  toughness  with- 
out destroying  its  beauty  or  metallic  luster,  unless  an 
excess  of  metal  is  used.  Gold  and  silver  possess  all 
the  qualities,  except  hardness,  necessary  for  making 
beautiful  jewelry.  Pure  gold  is  so  soft  that  it  is  prac- 
tically unusable. 

i8 


ALLOYS 


19 


Pure  gold  cannot  be  affected  by  any  gases  or  impuri- 
ties in  the  air  or  water;  silver  is  only  affected  by  sul- 
phur; but  copper  will  corrode  under  ordinary  atmos- 
pheric conditions.  Gold  which  contains  a  large  amount 
of  copper  will  in  hot  weather  leave  a  green  mark  on  the 
skin.  Platinum  is  unalterable  by  the  air  or  even  by 
acids  under  ordinary  conditions  but  the  "  white  gold  " 
imitation  of  platinum  contains  silver  and  nickel  which 
are  attacked  by  sulphur  or  acids. 

Metals  are  also  alloyed  to  modify  their  color  and  to 
cause  them  to  melt  more  easily.  A  solder  must  have  a 
lower  melting  point  than  that  of  the  metal  to  be 
soldered.  Gold  and  silver  solders  are  made  by  adding 
copper  and  silver  to  the  first  and  copper  to  the  second. 
An  alloy  may  have  a  melting  point  even  lower  than 
that  of  either  of  the  metals  of  which  it  is  composed  as 
in  the  case  of  tin  and  lead  which  are  combined  to  make 
"  soft  solder." 

One  obvious  reason  for  alloying  the  precious  metals 
is  to  reduce  the  cost  of  material. 

Preparation 

The  metals  used  are  selected  and  carefully  weighed 
so  that  the  proportions  of  the  alloy  may  be  exactly 
right. 

The  metal  having  the  highest  melting  point  is  melted 
first  in  a  crucible  made  of  porcelain,  plumbago,  or 


* 


I 


20 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


fire-clay  according  to  the  nature  of  the  metal.  The 
metals  more  easily  melted  are  then  added  and  the 
mixture  stirred  until  it  is  thoroughly  melted  and  mixed 
together.  Sometimes  a  "  flux  "  is  added  to  remove  the 
impurities  of  the  metals.  Fluxes  may  be  of  charcoal, 
borax,  carbonate  of  soda,  common  salt,  sulphur,  or 
powdered  glass. 

Fluxes  are  materials  or  combinations  of  materials 
which  have  a  low  melting  point.  They  are  used  to 
assist  in  melting  other  materials  and  also  to  carry  off 
impurities  with  which  they  mix  or  combine  as  they 
melt. 

The  mixture  is  then  poured  into  a  mold  to  be  cooled. 
The  ingot  or  bar  of  alloy  should  have  the  same  weight 
when  cooled  as  that  of  all  the  metals  composing  it. 


Part  II — Precious  Stones 


Chapter  VI 
GROUPING  STONES  BY  COLOR 

First  Steps  in  Learning  the  Stones 

The  task  of  becoming  acquainted  with  precious 
stones  is  a  bewildering  one.  There  are  many  stones 
of  similar  appearance  which  have  different  names  and 
different  values.  On  the  other  hand  the  same  stone 
may  appear  in  a  number  of  different  colors.  One  must 
not  only  be  able  to  distinguish  a  diamond  from  a  white 
sapphire,  but  also  to  know  that  there  is  a  white 
sapphire  and  a  yellow  and  a  purple  one  as  well  as  the 
beautiful  blue  stone  which  is  called  by  that  name. 

The  most  direct  way  to  study  and  become  acquainted 
with  precious  stones  is,  first  of  all,  to  group  them  men- 
tally by  colors,  noticing  the  leading  or  typical  stone  of 
each  group,  and  comparing  similar  stones  with  it. 
This  method  of  grouping  will  also  help  in  making  ar- 

21 


i  I 


I 


22 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


rangements  of  definite  color  schemes,  especially  the 
harmonizing  of  jewelry  with  costumes  which  is  a  cus- 
tom now  in  vogue.  Women  who  can  afford  it,  use 
jewels  for  every  gown,  and  ornaments  for  afternoon 
as  well  as  evening  wear. 

In  each  of  the  following  color  groups  it  will  be 
noticed  that  there  are  opaque  as  well  as  transparent 
stones. 

Colorless  Stones 

The  diamond  is  the  representative  stone  of  this 
group,  although  it  is  found  in  a  wide  range  of  colors 
—  yellow,  green,  pink,  less  often  red  and  blue.  Its 
surpassing  quality  is  its  property  of  dividing  light  into 
colored  rays.  This  wonderful  brilliancy  is  termed 
"  fire."  Its  fire  and  hardness  (it  is  the  hardest  of  all 
known  substances)  are  the  two  characteristics  which 
distinguish  the  diamond  from  other  colorless  stones. 

The  sircon,  also  called  jargoon,  approaches  the  dia- 
mond more  nearly  than  any  other  stone  in  brilliancy. 

The  white  sapphire  is  very  hard,  ranking  next  to  the 
diamond  in  this  respect;  but  its  luster  is  much  softer 
than  that  of  the  diamond. 

The  white  topaz  takes  a  very  high  polish  and  thus 
resembles  the  diamond  in  the  daytime. 

Bristol  diamonds,  and  Lake  George  diamonds  are 
forms  of  rock  crystal,  used  for  imitating  diamonds. 


GROUPING  STONES  BY  COLOR 


23 


Tourmaline,  phenacite,  spinel,  and  beryl  are  other 
colorless  stones  less  often  seen. 

The  moonstone  is  an  opalescent,  opaque,  white  stone 
easily  distinguished  by  its  soft  bluish  light. 

The  white  opal  is  also  easily  distinguished  by  its  play 
of  lights. 

White  coral  and  white  jade  are  clear,  opaque  white 
stones. 

Red  Stones 

The  ruby  is  the  most  beautiful  and  the  most  costly 
of  the  transparent  red  stones,  being  more  expensive 
than  the  diamond,  especially  in  the  pigeon's  blood  hue. 
The  ruby  is  very  hard. 

The  red  garnet,  red  spinel,  red  tourmaline  and  red 
quartz  are  so  like  the  ruby  as  often  to  be  mistaken  for 
it.     These  stones  are  softer  than  the  ruby. 

The  fire  opal  may  be  called  a  red  stone,  as  red  is  its 
predominating  tint.  This  cannot  be  confused  with  any 
of  the  other  red  stones  because  of  the  play  of  light  in  it. 

The  cornelian,  which  is  the  color  of  raw  flesh,  is  an 
opaque  stone  often  seen  in  signet  rings. 

Jasper  is  a  bright  red,  opaque  stone. 

Coral  is  found  in  all  shades  of  red,  from  very  light, 
almost  pink,  to  deep  red.     It  is  opaque. 

Crreen  Stones 

The  emerald  has  been  so  universally  accepted  as  the 


24 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


green  stone  that  the  word  emerald  is  now  a  general 
trade  designation  for  various  transparent  precious  and 
semiprecious  green  stones,  and  is  not  simply  the  name 
of  any  one  specific  stone.  The  true  emerald,  however, 
is  a  form  of  the  mineral  beryl,  and  is  a  very  valuable 
gem,  even  more  expensive  than  the  diamond  or  ruby. 

The  green  garnet  (called  olivine),  peridot,  chryso- 
beryl,  and  tourmaline,  are  emerald-green  stones  very 
often  seen. 

The  aquamarine  is  distinctly  different  from  these 
others  in  its  sea-green  color. 

The  opaque  green  stones  include: 

Malachite,  a  bright  green  stone  with  a  silky  luster. 

Chrysoprase,  leek  or  apple-green. 

Bloodstone,  distinguishable  by  its  bright  blood-red 
spots. 

Serpentine,  varying  from  rich  olive  to  pistachio. 

Variscite,  rich  green  usually  cut  with  the  matrix,  the 
rock  in  which  it  is  embedded. 

Jade,  a  very  hard  Chinese  stone. 

Blue  Stones 

The  sapphire  of  the  cornflower-blue  shade  is  the 
most  valuable  and  beautiful  transparent  blue  stone.  It 
is  much  harder  than  any  other  stone  of  this  color. 

Blue  topaz  and  blue  tourmaline  (indicolite)  are  simi- 
lar in  color  but  less  frequently  seen. 


GROUPING  STONES  BY  COLOR 


25 


Lapis  lazuli  and  azurite  are  beautiful  deep  blue 
opaque  stones. 

The  turquoise  is  distinguished  by  its  robin's  tgg  or 
greenish-blue  color. 

Yellow  Stones 

The  topaz  is  instantly  thought  of  as  the  typical  trans- 
parent yellow  stone,  though  the  topaz  may  be  of  any 
shade.     It  has  a  brilliant  luster. 

The  yellow  sapphire  is  very  like  the  topaz,  but  much 
harder. 

The  yellow  spinel  is  a  transparent  stone  less  often 
seen. 

Amber  is  a  rich  yellow  and  may  be  either  transparent 
or  translucent. 

Chrysoberyl  appears  in  different  shades  of  yellow. 

Citrine  (yellow  quartz)  resembles  the  topaz,  but  is 
much  softer. 

Hyacinth,  or  jacinth,  are  forms  of  zircon  of  a  deep 
yellow  tint. 

Violet  or  Purple  Stones 

The  amethyst  is  practically  the  only  purple  stone  in 
general  use.    This  is  seen  in  all  shades  of  purple. 

The  purple  sapphire  is  almost  identical  in  color  with 
the  amethyst  but  is  very  rare. 

A  violet  spinel  is  sometimes  seen. 


26 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Pink  Stones 

Pink  stones  are  rather  rare. 

Kunzite  is  a  beautiful,  lilac-colored  transparent  stone. 

The  ruby,  beryl,  tourmaline,  spinel  are  sometimes 
seen  in  a  pink  shade. 

The  topaz  becomes  pink  when  heated. 

Coral,  in  a  large  variety  of  shades,  and  rhodonite, 
often  containing  black  markings,  are  opaque  pink 
stones. 

Brown  Stones 

Brown  stones  are  not  very  popular. 
The  hyacinth  is  a  yellowish-brown  transparent  stone. 
The  garnet  and  tourmaline  are  also  found  in  brown. 
Cairngorm  or  smoky  quartz  is  a  rich  yellow-brown. 

Black  Stones 

Jet,  either  in  its  dull  or  highly  polished  form,  is  a 
familiar  substance  in  the  Jewelry  Department. 

Black  tourmaline,  garnets,  and  quartz  are  sometimes 
seen. 

Black  onyx  is  used  in  mourning  jewelry. 


Chapter  VII 

VALUATION  OF  PRECIOUS  STONES 

Popular  Misconceptions 

After  one  has  learned  to  know  the  stones  of  the 
various  color  groups,  he  should  next  become  familiar 
with  the  values  of  the  stones.  Popular  information  on 
this  subject  is  very  inaccurate.  For  example,  most 
people  suppose  that  the  diamond  is  the  most  valuable 
stone  on  the  market,  while  in  reality  there  are  two 
stones  ranking  above  it  in  value  —  the  ruby  and  the 
emerald. 

Again,  it  is  popularly  supposed  that  gems  may  be 
divided  by  a  hard  and  fast  line  into  "  gems,"  "  precious 
stones,"  and  "  semiprecious  stones,"  but  this  again  is 
an  error,  for  scarcely  two  authorities  will  agree  upon 
a  classification.  Some  classify  them  according  to 
mineral  composition,  others  according  to  rarity,  others 
according  to  transparency  or  lack  of  transparency, 
others  by  hardness,  others  by  the  popular  demand  and 
fashion. 

Essential  Characteristics  of  Stones 

All  agree,  however,  that  there  are  three  character- 

27 


w 


28 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


istics  which  precious  stones  should  possess,  viz.,  beauty, 
durability,  and  rarity,  and  unless  they  do  possess  these 
essentials  they  cannot  be  satisfactory  as  precious  stones. 
For  instance,  there  are  many  very  beautiful  minerals 
which  are  too  soft  to  be  suitable  for  mounting  and  use 
as  a  personal  ornament,  although  for  sheer  beauty  they 
would  be  desirable.  Other  substances  possess  great 
durability,  as  the  common  black  corundum,  but  lack 
beauty  or  rarity  and  so  are  not  valuable. 

Beauty 

The  beauty  of  a  stone  depends  upon  its  color,  luster, 
and  transparency  or  opaqueness. 

Color 

Color  is  due  to  the  property  of  reflecting  light.  A 
ray  of  white  light  is  composed  of  six  pure  colors  —  red, 
orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  and  violet.  The  sparkling 
diamond  reflects  all  the  light  and  therefore  appears 
white,  while  jet  absorbs  all  the  light  and  appears  black. 
The  blue  sapphire  reflects  only  the  blue  rays,  absorb- 
ing the  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  and  violet.  The 
emerald  reflects  the  green,  absorbing  the  others  and  so 

on. 

These  differences  in  regard  to  the  reflection  of  light 
are  caused  by  differences  in  the  chemical  composition 
of  stones.    The  presence  of  cobalt  produces  blue,  cop- 


VALUATION  OF  PRECIOUS  STONES  29 

per  green,  iron  brown,  manganese  purple,  etc.  The 
glass  maker  uses  the  same  method  in  manufacturing 
colored  glass  ware,  putting  these  chemicals  into  "  the 
batch  '*  from  which  glass  is  made. 

When  it  comes  to  identifying  stones  it  is  unsafe  to 
place  too  much  reliance  on  the  color,  for  not  only  are 
there  many  stones  of  very  similar  colors,  but  one  min- 
eral may  appear  in  many  colors.  An  expert  can  usu- 
ally distinguish  the  differences,  but  for  most  people 
color  is  not  a  reliable  test. 

Luster 

Beauty  in  a  stone  is  also  dependent  on  its  luster  or 
brilliancy,  that  is,  its  manner  of  reflecting  the  light. 
The  kinds  of  luster  are  described  as : 

Adamantine,  as  in  the  diamond. 

Vitreous,  or  glassy,  as  in  the  amethyst. 

Greasy,  or  waxy,  as  in  the  turquoise. 

Resinous,  as  in  amber  or  garnets. 

Silky,  as  in  crocidolite. 

Pearly,  as  in  the  pearl  and  sometimes  the  opal. 

Metallic,  or  the  luster  of  metals. 

The  degree  of  luster  is  described  as : 

Splendent,  as  in  the  diamond. 

Shining. 

Glistening. 

Glimmering. 


30 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


The  diamond  possesses  the  highest  and  rarest  luster 
which  a  gem  may  possess,  the  adamantine  luster  in 
the  splendent  degree.  At  the  present  time  stones  with 
a  high  luster  are  the  most  popular.  Vitreous  luster  is 
a  little  more  subdued  than  the  adamantine.  The  finest 
rubies  have  the  adamantine  luster,  but  more  often  they 
have  the  vitreous.  The  luster  is  brought  out  by  the 
manner  of  cutting  and  polishing  as  well  as  by  the  set- 
ting or  mounting  of  the  stone. 

Transparency  or  Opaqueness 

Another  property  upon  which  beauty  depends  is  the 
transparency  or  opaqueness  of  a  stone.  Scientifically 
this  is  known  as  "  diaphaneity,"  the  degree  to  which  a 
gem  transmits  light.  A  gem  is  known  as  transparent, 
like  the  diamond,  when  objects  can  be  seen  through  it ; 
subtransparent,  when  they  are  seen  a  little  less  dis- 
tinctly; translucent,  as  the  opal,  when  objects  cannot  be 
seen  through  it  but  when  the  light  passes  through ;  sub- 
translucent,  when  this  is  true  to  a  greater  degree ;  and 
opaque,  as  the  turquoise,  when  no  light  is  transmitted. 

Durability 

The  durability  of  a  stone  depends  upon  its  ability 
to  endure  wear  and  friction.  A  scale,  known  as  the 
Mohs  Table,  was  devised  by  a  man  named  Mohs  to 
indicate  the  relative  degrees  of  hardness  of  the  various 
gems.     It  is  as  follows : 


VALUATION  OF  PRECIOUS  STONES 


31 


10.  Diamond 

9.  Corundum  (ruby  and  sapphire) 
8.  Topaz 
7.  Quartz 
6.  Feldspar 
5.  Apatite 
4.  Fluorite 
3.  Calcite 
2.  Gypsum 
I.  Talc 

The  gems  which  do  not  appear  on  this  list  range 
between  the  others ;  for  example,  the  emerald  and  aqua- 
marine 7.75,  turquoise  6,  opal  5.5,  etc.  There  is  con- 
siderable variation  in  each  degree,  however,  as  stones 
from  different  localities  often  vary  greatly  in  hardness. 

Stones  below  the  number  5  are  generally  considered 
too  soft  for  jewelry. 

Rarity 

All  precious  stones  are  rare.  This  is  the  reason  they 
are  so  valuable.  If  diamonds  were  as  common  as  coal 
they  would  be  as  cheap.  But  some  stones  are  rarer 
than  others.  A  stone  may  be  rare  in  color,  as  the  red 
diamond;  or  rare  in  size,  as  large  emeralds. 

This  quality  of  a  stone  is  the  only  one  of  the  three 
essentials  which  is  relative,  as  it  varies  with  new  dis- 
coveries of  gem  deposits.     The  crocidolite  (tiger's 


32 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


eye)  is  an  example  of  this.  Years  ago  it  was  used  in 
fine  jewelry  and  sold  by  the  carat.  Today  it  is  so 
plentiful  that  it  is  used  only  for  cameos  and  intaglios. 

The  other  two  essentials,  beauty  and  durability,  are 
constant,  as  they  depend  upon  the  chemical  and  physi- 
cal composition  and  structure  of  the  stone. 


Chapter  VIII 

DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 

The  Diamond  — Its  Characteristics 

The  diamond  is  generally  regarded  as  the  prince  of 
gems. 

In  composition  the  diamond  is  the  same  substance  as 
coal,  lampblack,  and  graphite ;  that  is,  pure  carbon  but 
in  its  crystalline  form. 

In  color  the  diamond  may  be  perfectly  transparent 
or  in  shades  of  yellow,  brown,  green,  gray,  red,  blue, 
or  black.  For  example,  the  famous  Florentine  dia- 
mond is  light  yellow,  the  Tiffany  deep  orange,  the  Hope 
diamond  blue,  one  owned  by  the  Czar  of  Russia  a  bril- 
liant red,  and  a  pear-shaped  one  in  the  Dresden  vaults 
a  bright  green.  The  blue-white  diamonds  having  a 
distinct  bluish  tint,  are  the  finest,  the  white,  colorless 
diamonds  are  next,  and  those  with  a  yellowish  cast,  or 
"  off  color  "  stones,  least  valuable.  Diamonds  are  usu- 
ally transparent,  though  the  gray  or  black  diamonds 
known  as  bort  or  carbonado  (which  are  used  for  drills, 
etc.)  are  opaque. 

33 


34  JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 

The  luster  of  diamonds  is  much  higher  than  that  of 
other  minerals.  Zircon  comes  next.  All  grades  of 
luster  are  found  in  the  diamond,  from  the  adamantine 
in  the  splendent  degree,  as  in  the  A  i  brilliant,  to  the 
greasy  and  dull.  A  metallic  luster  is  often  seen  in 
stones  worn  by  water. 

In  hardness  the  diamond  exceeds  all  other  known 
substances.  It  is  the  most  brilliant  of  all  stones.  The 
wonderful  brilliancy  of  the  diamond  is  due  mainly  to 
the  total  reflection  of  light  from  its  various  invisible 
facets.  It  not  only  reflects  light  from  the  external 
facets,  but  from  the  tiny  internal  ones.  Its  flashes 
of  light  are  due  to  the  property  of  dispersing  or  sep- 
arating light  into  its  different  colored  rays. 

In  size,  diamonds  range  from  the  size  of  a  grain 
of  wheat  to  a  few  as  large  as  a  walnut,  and  one  as 
large  as  a  man's  fist. 

Sources  of  Diamonds 

For  a  long  time  all  the  diamonds  came  from  India, 
from  the  rivers  not  far  from  the  town  of  Golconda,  and 
from  Borneo.  In  1727  they  were  discovered  in  Brazil, 
which  for  140  years  was  the  chief  diamond  field  of  the 
world.  They  are  still  mined  there.  In  1 829  they  were 
discovered  in  Europe,  and  in  1850  in  California. 
Idaho,  Oregon,  and  Wisconsin  also  have  some  diamond 
producing  fields.     In  185 1  diamonds  were  discovered 


11;  t 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 


35 


in  Australia,  but  these  have  never  been  very  large,  those 
weighing  5%  carats  being  the  largest. 

It  was  not  until  1867  that  the  field  which  produces 
nine-tenths  of  the  world's  supply  today,  South  Africa, 
was  discovered.  The  first  diamonds  were  found  by 
accident  in  a  river  bed  near  Hope  Town  in  Cape  Colony. 
Among  the  most  famous  and  most  productive  South 
African  mines  are  those  at  Kimberley  and  Jagers- 
fontein. 

Diamonds  are  often  discovered  associated  with 
quartz,  garnets,  sapphires,  topazes,  tourmalines,  and 
zircon,  whether  in  river  beds  or  in  mines.  When  the 
diamonds  are  in  the  gravel  of  river  beds,  barrow fuls 
of  the  sand  are  searched  much  as  gold  is  "  panned.'* 
When  they  are  found  in  mines  they  are  worked  by 
shafts  sunk  in  beds  of  deposit,  as  in  the  Kimberley 
claims.     Some  mines  are  already  2,000  feet  deep. 

Mining  of  Diamonds 

The  modern  method  of  recovering  rough  diamonds 
from  the  soil  in  which  they  have  lain  for  ages  is  inter- 
esting, and  it  accounts  in  no  small  measure  for  their 
ever  increasing  value.  The  rock  containing  the  clay 
and  diamonds  is  blasted  and  carried  to  the  weather- 
ing grounds,  where  it  is  spread  out  in  the  open  air 
to  disintegrate.  From  six  months  to  one  year  is  re- 
quired to  pulverize  the  earth  thoroughly  and  to  get  it 


36 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


ready  for  the  washing  machines.  These  machines  sep- 
arate the  diamonds  and  other  heavy  material  from  the 
earth.  This  material  is  then  sifted  into  sizes,  and 
finally  it  goes  to  the  sorting  tables.  After  sorting,  it  is 
cleaned  by  boiling  in  acids.  After  this  the  stones  are 
carefully  sorted  according  to  size,  color,  and  purity, 
and  made  up  in  parcels  to  be  sent  to  the  syndicates' 
offices,  where  they  are  sold  to  the  cutters  and  exporters. 

Value  of  Diamonds 

The  quality  of  a  diamond  is  described  by  the  terms 
"first  water,"  "second  water,"  "third  water,"  and 
"  fancy  stones."  The  term  "  water  "  is  used  because 
when  a  perfect  diamond  is  submerged  in  water  it  is 
invisible. 

A  first  water  stone  is  perfect. 

A  second  water  stone  has  some  slight  imperfection, 
being  flawless  but  tinged  with  color,  or  colorless  with  a 
slight  flaw. 

A  third  water  stone  has  marked  flaws  or  imperfec- 
tions or  a  noticeable  color. 

Fancy  stones  are  those  which  have  a  distinct  and 
beautiful  color. 

White  diamonds  are  wholly  free  from  color,  that  is, 

clear  like  a  dewdrop. 

History  of  Diamonds 

In  early  times,  the  diamond  like  other  gems  was 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 


37 


considered  a  charm  against  disease  and  evil  spirits, 
and  was  closely  connected  with  the  art  of  medicine. 
Later  on,  diamonds  were  worn  only  by  kings  in  their 
magnificence.  They  were  worn  for  the  first  time  as 
personal  adornments  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  French 
women.  Today  they  hold  an  important  place  among 
the  world's  commodities  of  beauty  and  luxury.  The 
Russian  crown  jewels  contain  some  of  the  famous  dia- 
monds of  the  world,  and  the  Imperial  Treasury  of 
Austria  has  the  Florentine  diamond  worth  about  $500,- 
000.  The  crown  worn  by  Queen  Victoria  was  of  velvet 
with  an  ermine  border,  covered  with  diamonds,  pearls, 
sapphires,  and  emeralds,  set  in  gold  and  silver.  It 
contained  more  than  2,000  diamonds  and  2^]^  pearls. 

The  origin  of  the  use  of  diamonds  in  betrothal  rings 
was  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  for  many  centuries 
they  were  supposed  to  have  a  strong  spiritual  influence, 
being  symbolic  of  constancy  and  innocence. 

Many  people  purchase  diamonds  as  an  investment. 
In  the  past  ten  years  the  price  of  the  highest 
grade  diamonds  has  tripled.  Before  the  Euro- 
pean War  there  was  a  yearly  increase  in  the  price 
of  fine  stones  and  diamonds  were  among  the  com- 
modities whose  value  was  greatly  increased  as  a 
result  of  the  war. 


The  Emerald 

The  true  emerald  is  the  green  form  of  the  mineral 


I 


38 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


beryl,  although  the  name  emerald  has  recently  been 
used  to  designate  various  green  stones,  such  as  the 
Brazilian  tourmaline,  olivine,  garnet,  etc.  The  true 
emerald  is  worth  as  much  as  a  ruby  and  more  than  a 
diamond.  The  reason  for  this  high  value  is  that  green 
stones  are  greatly  in  demand,  and  that  perfect  stones 
are  scarce  as  many  emeralds  contain  small  cracks  and 
foreign  matter  which  make  them  dull.  Large  stones 
are  very  rare  and  therefore  very  expensive.  One  of 
the  largest  known  to  exist  is  owned  by  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire;  it  measures  two  inches  across  and  weighs 
8  %o  ounces. 

The  chief  sources  of  supply  of  this  gem  at  present 
are  South  America  and  Siberia.  Emeralds  are  never 
found  in  gravel  like  diamonds,  rubies,  and  sapphires, 
but  are  always  embedded  in  rock  formations. 

The  aquamarine  has  the  same  mineral  composition 
as  the  emerald.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  color  of 
the  sea.    It  is  not  so  rare  as  the  emerald  nor  so  much 

in  demand. 

The  word  beryl  is  usually  applied  to  stones  of  golden 
yellow  or  other  colors  which  have  the  same  compo- 
sition as  the  emerald  or  aquamarine. 

Pearls 

Pearls  are  very  unlike  other  gems  in  origin  as  they 
are  found  in  the  shells  of  oysters  and  other  shell-fish. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 


39 


They  are  divided  into  two  classes:  (i)  oriental  or 
true,  and  (2)  fresh  water  pearls.  Other  pearls  may 
be  similar  formations  produced  by  mollusks,  but  from 
material  that  is  not  pearly. 

Structure  of  Pearls 

The  structure  of  a  pearl  resembles  that  of  an  onion. 
Layers  of  calcium  carbonate  and  other  matter,  ex- 
tracted from  the  water  by  the  pearl  oyster  or  pearl 
mussel,  are  deposited  about  some  foreign  substance, 
like  a  grain  of  sand,  which  has  lodged  itself  within 
the  shell  and  irritates  the  body  of  the  oyster  or  mussel. 
A  pearl  may  assume  any  shape:  spherical  the  most 
prized,  drop  or  pear-shaped,  oval  or  egg-shaped,  or  it 
may  be  quite  irregular  in  form.  The  word  pearl  itself 
means  a  pear-shaped  ornament.  Boutons,  or  button 
pearls,  are  frequently  found  attached  to  the  shell  from 
which  they  are  cut.  The  bottom  part  is  smoothed  and 
polished.  They  lack  luster  on  the  side  which  was  at- 
tached to  the  shell.  Wart  or  blister  pearls  are  the  re- 
sult of  a  parasite's  being  walled  up  at  the  point  of 
entrance  to  the  shell.  Irregular  and  odd-shaped  pearls 
are  called  baroques. 

Color  of  Pearls 

Ordinarily  the  color  of  pearls  is  a  satiny  silver  or 
bluish-white,  or  a  faintly  tinged  yellowish-white. 
More  rarely  they  are  salmon-pink,  purple,  reddish,  or 


ii 

ill  I 


I 


40 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


blackish-gray.  Perfect  black  pearls  are  valuable,  but 
not  so  costly  as  the  finest  white.  Pearls  are  translucent 
to  a  varying  degree. 

Luster  of  Pearls 

What  brilliancy  is  to  the  diamond,  luster  is  to  the 
pearl.  This  is  known  as  "  orient."  The  thinner  the 
coatings  of  deposit  are,  the  finer  is  the  luster.  As 
many  as  87  layers  are  found  in  rare  Indian  oyster 
pearls. 

Sources  of  Pearls 

About  seven-eighths  of  all  pearls  come  from  the 
Arabian  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Most  of  the 
others  are  found  off  the  coasts  of  Australia,  the  Philip- 
pine Islands,  and  about  Ceylon.  Those  from  the  Ara- 
bian coast  are  of  excellent  quality,  but  of  a  more  yel- 
lowish cast  than  those  from  Ceylon,  which  are  beau- 
tifully white  and  silvery.  The  black  pearl  is  found 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  abalone  pearl,  usually 
occurring  as  a  baroque,  is  found  in  the  English  Chan- 
nel islands,  and  on  the  coasts  of  France,  Japan,  and 
California.  Pink  or  conch  pearls  are  found  in  the 
Bahamas. 

Pearl  Diving 

Pearl  fishers  dive  for  the  pearl  oysters  which  are 
found  embedded  among  coral  reefs,  sponges,  and  other 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 


41 


sea  life,  in  limestone  formations  from  15  to  40  or  even 
150  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  Sometimes 
the  oysters  are  on  shoals,  but  always  under  the  surface 
of  the  water. 

The  industry  is  financed  by  merchants  who  control 
the  fishing.  In  the  Red  Sea  district  Arabs  man  the 
boats  and  black  slaves  do  the  diving.  Several  boats 
go  out  together  and  remain  during  the  season,  which 
may  be  three  or  four  months.  The  diver,  connected 
by  a  signaling  line  to  the  boat,  is  let  down  to  the  bot- 
tom and  remains  there  for  hours,  gathering  shells, 
which  he  brings  up  in  his  basket.  These  are  counted 
and  the  next  day  the  pearls  are  taken  from  the  dead 
oysters  and  sorted  by  passing  through  brass  sieves. 
They  are  then  classified  as  to  size,  color,  and  quality  and 
weighed  and  valued. 

Size  and  Value  of  Pearls 

Large  pearls  are  sold  separately.  The  smaller  ones 
known  as  seed  pearls  come  into  the  market  bored  and 
strung  on  silk  in  bunches.  The  unit  of  weight  is  the 
pearl  grain  (%  carat).  Spherical  pearls  command 
highest  prices,  the  pearl  drop  the  next,  and  the  but- 
ton the  lowest.  The  cheaper  grades  are  sold  by  the 
carat. 

Single  pearls  often  command  great  prices,  but  a  per- 
fectly matched  pair  is  worth  four  or  five  times  the  price 


42  JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 

of  either  taken  singly.     It  is  said  that  there  are  only 
four  individual  pearls  that  have  a  world-wide  celebrity. 

History  of  Pearls 

The  use  and  popularity  of  pearls  extends  back  for 
centuries.  Chinese  records  show  that  pearls  were  used 
as  tribute  in  the  twenty-third  century  B.C.  They 
have  always  been  associated  with  royalty  and  luxury, 
being  counted  among  the  principal  treasures  of  kings. 
The  pearl  has  been  called  the  "  aristocrat  of  gems." 

Culture  Pearls 

Culture  pearls  are  made  by  cementing  small  pieces 
of  mother-of-pearl  to  the  interior  surface  of  the  oyster 
shell.  In  about  a  year  a  coating  of  pearl  is  added 
which  is  doubled  in  another  two  years.  This  is  re- 
moved from  the  oyster,  cemented  to  a  piece  of  ordinary 
mother-of-pearl  and  the  lower  part  ground  to  the  usual 
symmetrical  shape.  It  makes  a  pearl  similar  to  the  real 
except  that  the  orient  is  inferior.  Blister  pearls  are 
treated  in  the  same  way,  but  also  lack  orient. 

The  Japanese  carry  on  pearl  oyster  cultivation  for 
the  culture  of  these  artificial  pearls  about  the  Island 
Tadoka.     Women  and  girls  do  the  diving. 

Setting  of  Pearls 

Pearls  are  not  cut  though,  if  dull,  the  first  skin 
may  be  removed  by  a  delicate  operation  and  another 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 


43 


iridescent  layer  exposed.  Because  of  their  softness, 
pearls  must  be  set  carefully  lest  they  be  injured  by  the 
hard  metal  which  holds  them.  When  only  the  upper 
half  shows  they  are  often  sawed  in  half.  Button  pearls 
are  much  used  in  rings. 

Ruby 

The  ruby  is  the  red  form  of  the  mineral  corundum, 
and  the  most  valuable  member  of  the  group.  It  ranks 
above  the  diamond  in  value,  because  large,  perfect 
rubies  are  extremely  rare.  In  color  it  varies  from  a 
rose  to  a  deep  carmine,  the  "pigeon's  blood"  hue 
being  the  most  valuable.  There  is  a  legend  that  the 
expert's  test  for  the  color  of  a  ruby  is  to  put  the  gem  on 
a  sheet  of  white  paper  and  let  a  fresh  drop  of  blood 
from  a  pigeon's  heart  fall  beside  it.  This  explains 
the  name  of  the  shade.  The  color  varies  greatly  with 
the  direction  from  which  the  stone  is  viewed.  There- 
fore in  cutting,  the  side  from  which  the  richest  color 
is  seen  is  always  uppermost. 

Burma  and  India  contain  the  most  important  ruby 
mines.  Other  mines  are  located  in  Siam,  Ceylon, 
Afghanistan,  and  in  the  United  States  in  North  Caro- 
lina. 

Some  rubies  show  a  six-rayed  star  and  are  called 
"  asteriated  "  or  star  ruby,  sometimes  "  cat's  eye  ruby." 
They  are  quite  rare. 


i 


m 


44  JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 

Inferior  stones  and  imitations  are  very  often  of- 
fered for  rubies  because  the  stone  is  so  valuable.  The 
most  common  substitutes  are  the  red  spinel  and  garnet. 
Optical  tests  readily  detect  the  difference. 

Common  faults  of  rubies  are  a  lack  of  clearness, 
or  a  presence  of  cloudiness,  called  silk,  patches,  and 
internal  cracks. 

Sapphire 

The  sapphire  is  the  same  mineral  as  the  ruby,  namely 
corundum,  but  is  the  blue  form.  All  shades  and  depths 
of  blue  are  found,  but  the  most  highly  prized  colors 
are  the  cornflower  and  royal  blues.  The  deep  colored 
stones  are  known  as  lynx  or  cat  sapphires,  and  the 
paler  shades  as  feminine.  The  color  usually  grows 
pale  under  artificial  light  but  some  specimens  become 
violet  and  these  are  very  valuable.  Like  the  ruby,  some 
sapphires  show  a  six-rayed  star  in  certain  kinds  of 
light.  If  the  rays  are  bright  and  the  star  well  defined 
the  stone  is  very  valuable. 

The  sapphire  is  the  hardest  form  of  corundum.  In 
value  it  is  approximately  two-fifths  that  of  the  ruby, 
but  as  sapphires  of  large  size  are  more  plentiful  than 
large  rubies,  the  value  does  not  increase  so  rapidly  with 
size.  They  often  have  to  be  cut  down  considerably 
as  they  are  frequently  patchy  in  color. 

Sapphires  are  found  in  the  same  localities  as  rubies, 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 


45 


usually  with  them.  More  than  half  of  the  world's  sup- 
ply comes  from  Siam;  the  rest  from  Ceylon,  the 
Himalaya  Mountains,  Australia,  and  the  state  of  Mon- 
tana. 

Amethyst 

The  amethyst  is  a  purple  variety  of  transparent, 
crystal  quartz,  ranging  in  color  from  the  slightest  vio- 
let tint  to  a  very  dark  plum  color.  It  is  found  chiefly 
in  Brazil,  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  Siberia,  but  also  in 
a  number  of  other  localities.  North  America,  the  Brit- 
ish Isles,  Uruguay,  and  Ceylon.  The  Siberian  stones 
are  the  finest.  The  word  amethyst  means  "  prevent- 
ing drunkenness,"  and  the  stone  was  supposed  to  keep 
its  wearer  from  this  vice. 

At  one  time  the  amethyst  was  quite  rare  and  very 
valuable,  but  because  of  the  recent  discoveries  of  large 
deposits  it  is  not  nearly  so  valuable  today.  Its  beau- 
tiful color  and  ability  to  harmonize  with  a  costume 
scheme  make  it  a  popular  stone  at  all  times.  The 
amethyst  is  an  appropriate  stone  for  mourning  wear. 
It  should  be  simply  mounted  for  this  use. 

A  good  amethyst  should  be  a  uniform  deep  reddish- 
purple  color,  and  perfectly  transparent.  This  shade 
will  hold  its  color  under  artificial  light,  while  the  paler 
ones  do  not.  Amethysts  mounted  in  dull  silver  are 
beautiful  for  wear  with  pearl-gray  fabrics. 


!t 


•ft 

ri, 
,.» 


Chapter  IX 

DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES  (Continued) 

Coral 

Coral,  like  the  pearl,  is  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  built 
up  by  the  out-grown  shells  of  minute  sea  animals,  called 
zooids  and  is  found  60  to  100  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  water,  firmly  attached  to  some  object  in  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean,  such  as  a  stone  or  bottle.  It  is 
found  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  in  low  latitudes,  but 
the  gem  coral  comes  almost  exclusively  from  the  Medi- 
terreanean  Sea  and  off  the  coasts  of  Africa,  Corsica, 
and  Sicily.  Italy  is  the  center  of  the  coral  industry, 
both  fishing  and  working,  including  the  carving  and 
cutting  of  cameos. 

In  color  the  gem  coral  ranges  from  white  and  bright 
pink  to  a  dark  red.  The  wild-rose  pink  is  the  most 
desirable.  The  demand  for  coral  has  increased  stead- 
ily in  recent  years. 

Garnet 

Garnet  is  the  name  of  a  class  of  gem  minerals,  rang- 

46 


Figure  i.     Garnets  in  Matrix 


1 

I: 


I' 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


Chapter  IX 

DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES  (Continued) 

Coral 

Coral,  like  the  pearl,  is  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  built 
up  by  the  out-grown  shells  of  minute  sea  animals,  called 
zooids  and  is  found  60  to  100  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  water,  firmly  attached  to  some  object  in  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean,  such  as  a  stone  or  bottle.  It  is 
found  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  in  low  latitudes,  but 
the  gem  coral  comes  almost  exclusively  from  the  Medi- 
terreanean  Sea  and  off  the  coasts  of  Africa,  Corsica, 
and  Sicily.  Italy  is  the  center  of  the  coral  industry, 
both  fishing  and  working,  including  the  carving  and 
cutting  of  cameos. 

In  color  the  gem  coral  ranges  from  white  and  bright 
pink  to  a  dark  red.  The  wild-rose  pink  is  the  most 
desirable.  The  demand  for  coral  has  increased  stead- 
ily in  recent  years. 

Garnet 

Garnet  is  the  name  of  a  class  of  gem  minerals,  rang- 

46 


Figure  I.     Garnets  in  Matrix 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 


47 


•■'3 


ing  in  color  through  red,  pink,  brown,  yellow,  and 
green. 

The  precious  garnet,  the  cherry  or  blood-red  variety, 
is  known  as  almandine,  from  the  name  of  the  ancient 
city  which  first  introduced  them  to  Rome.  These  come 
from  India,  Australia,  and  Brazil.  There  has  been 
an  increasing  demand  for  this  variety  of  garnet  for 
medium-priced  jewelry  in  the  last  few  years. 

The  garnet  which  is  second  in  value  is  the  very 
deep  shade,  ranging  from  a  deep  blood-red  to  almost 
black,  is  known  as  the  Bohemian  garnet,  from  the  lo- 
cality where  it  is  found,  or  pyrope,  meaning  *'  fire-like.*' 
The  other  colors  are  known  by  a  great  variety  of 
names.  A  beautiful,  rich,  green  shade  is  known  as 
"  olivine." 

Opal 

The  distinguishing  feature  of  the  opal  is  its  beauti- 
ful play  of  colors.  The  term  "  opalescence  "  is  used 
to  describe  the  blending  of  the  yellow  light  transmit- 
ted through  the  stone.  It  is  not  certain  what  causes 
the  variety  of  colors.  Some  authorities  believe  that 
minute  cavities  cause  a  refraction  of  light.  In  the  va- 
riety used  as  a  gem  stone,  the  precious  opal,  brilliant 
and  pure  greens,  vivid  crimsons,  electric  blues,  rich 
violets,  or  sherry  yellows  appear.  The  best  precious 
opals  come  from  Hungary.  They  are  also  found  in 
Honduras,  Mexico,  Wales,  and  Australia. 


48 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


The  fire  opal  is  so  called  because  of  its  reddish  tint. 
It  is  particularly  apt  to  deteriorate  through  exposure. 
The  harlequin  opal  is  another  popular  variety  showing 
bright  green  and  crimson  flashes.  Within  recent  years 
a  black  variety  has  become  popular,  and  there  are  a 
great  many  other  varieties. 

Opal  matrix  is  much  used  in  artistic  jewelry  in  which 
a  rugged  effect  is  desired,  because  of  the  great  contrast 
between  the  stone  and  the  rock  in  which  it  is  found. 

In  earliest  times  the  opal  was  considered  an  omen 
of  good  luck,  but  since  the  seventeenth  century  it  has 
been  superstitiously  considered  unlucky.  Queen  Vic- 
toria is  believed  to  have  been  responsible  for  reinstating 
it  in  its  present  popularity  by  wearing  it  herself  and 
presenting  it  to  each  of  her  daughters  upon  their  mar- 
riage. 

Topaz 

Topaz  is  always  thought  of  as  being  yellow,  but  it 
may  be  almost  any  color  or  quite  colorless.  It  is  not  so 
popular  today  as  in  the  past.  The  true  topaz  is  very 
heavy,  zV^  times  as  heavy  as  water,  and  can  always  be 
detected  by  any  one  accustomed  to  handling  stones.  It 
is  also  very  hard,  being  the  third  in  the  scale  of  hard- 
ness. Therefore,  it  can  be  highly  polished,  and  the 
colorless  topaz  has  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  a  dia- 
mond. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 


49 


Other  minerals  known  as  topaz  are  the  yellow  sap- 
phire, called  *'  oriental  topaz,"  and  the  varieties  of 
quartz  called  "  saxon,"  "  Scotch,"  "  Spanish," 
"  smoky,"  and  "  false." 

Brazil  is  the  chief  source  of  supply,  but  it  is  also 
found  in  Saxony,  Mexico,  and  the  United  States. 

Turquoise 

The  turquoise  is  the  most  popular  of  the  opaque 
stones.  It  is  found  in  the  light  shades  of  blue,  the  char- 
acteristic color  being  a  greenish,  azure,  or  robin's  tgg 
blue.  The  color  is  due  to  a  compound  of  copper  which* 
it  contains.  It  has  a  waxy  luster  showing  a  beautiful 
play  of  light.  Turquoises  retain  their  color  well  at 
night. 

Persia  has  for  centuries  been  the  source  of  supply 
for  turquoises,  but  in  recent  years  the  supply  has 
greatly  diminished  and  today  stones  come  from  New 
Mexico,  Arizona,  and  many  other  localities.  History 
is  full  of  the  legends  surrounding  this  stone.  It  was 
closely  connected  with  social  and  religious  rites  and 
ceremonies.  It  is  said  that  its  name  is  due  to  its  being 
brought  into  Europe  through  Turkey. 

The  value  of  this  stone  rises  rapidly  with  increase  of 
weight  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  large 
perfect  pieces. 

Turquoise  matrix  is  somewhat  popular  at  present. 


so 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


The  dark  brown  matrix  is  preferred  as  the  mottling 
of  the  brown  and  blue  gives  a  very  rich  effect. 

Cat's  Eye 

There  are  many  different  stones  in  the  market  called 
cat's  eye,  any  stone  having  a  changeable,  undulating 
luster,  like  the  eye  of  a  cat  in  the  dark  being  given 
this  name.     The  true  stone  is  very  valuable. 

The  distinctive  feature  of  the  stone  is  the  milky- 
white,  bluish,  or  greenish-white  sheen  which  crosses  it 
at  every  movement.  This  is  due  to  a  streak  of  closely 
packed  asbestos  fibers  contained  in  the  stone.  These 
fibers  reflect  the  light.  The  effect  of  the  streak  is 
greatly  influenced  by  the  skill  of  the  cutter.  The 
greater  the  curvature  of  the  stone,  the  better  the  effect. 
The  best  cat's  eyes  come  from  India  and  Ceylon. 

The  quartz  cat's  eye  exhibits  the  same  ray  of  light, 
but  is  far  less  beautiful.  It  is  greenish-gray  in  color. 
The  tiger's  eye  is  also  quartz  and  resembles  the  cat's 
eye.  It  is  not  much  in  demand  at  present,  but  about 
twenty-five  years  ago  was  much  used  for  carving  cam- 
eos. In  color  it  is  yellow,  ranging  to  blue,  green,  or 
red.     The  blue  variety  is  known  as  hawk's  eye. 

Chrysoprasc 

Chrysoprase  was  at  one  time  a  very  fashionable 
stone,  then  its  use  died  out,  but  in  recent  years  it  has 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 


51 


again  come  somewhat  into  favor.  It  is  the  apple-green 
variety  of  quartz,  obtaining  its  color  from  nickel. 
Moderate  heat  or  strong  light  destroys  the  color.  It  is 
found  in  India. 

Jade 

Jade  is  a  sage-green  or  green-and-white  stone  par- 
ticularly valued  by  the  Chinese,  who  use  it  lavishly  for 
ornamental  purposes.  In  jewelry  it  is  seen  in  brace- 
lets and  seal  rings  and  it  is  set  in  silver  chains.  It  is 
not  the  beauty  of  the  mineral  that  interests  people  so 
much  as  the  wonderful  workmanship  displayed  by  the 
Chinese. 

The  best  variety  comes  from  Burma  and  New  Zea- 
land. 

Moonstone 

The  moonstone  is  a  very  beautiful  form  of  feldspar, 
reflecting  a  soft,  bluish-white  light  in  an  opalescent 
manner.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  Ceylon,  but  also  in  sev- 
eral localities  in  North  America.  Colorless  translu- 
cent pebbles  found  on  one  of  the  beaches  in  California, 
and  sometimes  called  moonstones,  are  often  gathered 
by  tourists  for  cutting  and  mounting  in  scarf-pins  and 
cuff  buttons,  but  these  are  not  the  true  moonstones. 

Moonstone  is  usually  cut  so  that  the  light  takes 
the  form  of  a  more  or  less  well-marked  band.     Lucky 


52 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


« 


« 


charms  of  moonstone  are  often  sold  in  ball  forms,  as 
the  moonstone  is  popularly  considered  a  lucky 
stone. 

Peridot 

Peridot  is  found  in  a  variety  of  colors,  but  it  is  only 
regarded  as  a  gem  when  it  is  of  rich  olive-green  color, 
resembling  that  seen  on  looking  through  a  delicate 
translucent  leaf,  and  when  it  is  perfectly  transparent. 
It  is  sometimes  called  "  the  evening  emerald."  When 
it  is  a  bright  yellowish-emerald  green  tint  it  is  called 

olivine,"  although  green  garnets  are  also  known  as 

olivines." 

Peridots  come  from  Burma,  Ceylon,  Egypt,  and 
Brazil.  As  they  are  moderate  in  price  and  effective, 
they  are  quite  popular,  but  being  soft  they  are  not 
adapted  to  settings  where  they  would  receive  hard 
usage  as  in  rings. 

An  interesting  variety  of  peridot  is  Job's  tears,  which 
are  found  in  separate  pear-shaped  globules. 

Kunzite 

Kunzite  is  lilac-colored,  varying  from  a  deep  rosy 
shade  to  delicate  pink.  It  is  a  comparatively  new  gem, 
having  been  discovered  in  California  in  1903,  and 
named  for  the  mineralogist.  Dr.  Kunz,  an  American 
authority  on  gems.  At  present  the  supply  of  this  gem 
does  not  nearly  equal  the  demand. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 


53 


Tourmaline 

Tourmaline  is  found  in  a  great  variety  of  colors. 
The  shades  which  are  most  used  for  stones  are  green, 
pink,  red,  and  blue.  The  green  variety  is  the  most 
beautiful  of  all  green  stones,  the  medium  bright  green 
shade  being  considered  better  than  the  brighter  or 
more  blackish-green.  The  deep  blue  shade  is  known 
as  the  "  Brazilian  sapphire,"  and  the  dark  red  "  rubel- 
lite."  It  is  so  like  the  ruby  that  it  easily  deceives  any 
one  but  an  expert.  In  fact,  the  varieties  of  tourma- 
line show  a  strong  resemblance  to  other  stones  such  as 
the  sapphire,  the  ruby,  and  so  on,  though  they  are  easily 
distinguished  by  scientific  tests.  The  stones  are  likely 
to  show  flaws  or  "  feathers  "  especially  the  pink  shades. 

Tourmalines  are  found  in  a  great  many  different 
localities  in  the  United  States,  but  the  principal  sources 
are  Ceylon,  Burma,  Brazil,  and  the  Ural  Mountains. 

Amber 

Amber,  like  the  pearl  and  coral,  is  a  product  of  the 
sea,  but  of  vegetable  origin.  It  is  the  fossil  resin  gum 
of  extinct  pine  trees  buried  in  the  ocean  beds  of  the 
Baltic  and  Adriatic  Seas,  and  off  the  coasts  of  Sicily, 
France,  China,  and  India,  and  in  the  states  of  New 
Jersey  and  Maryland.  The  chief  source  of  supply 
is  the  Baltic  coast  where  it  is  cast  up  by  the  waves.  It 
is  also  dredged  for  in  the  sands  of  shallows. 


54 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


In  color  it  is  yellow,  sometimes  reddish,  purplish  or 
brownish,  brittle  and  both  transparent  and  translucent. 
A  mottled  variety  is  called  demi-amber.  Amber  takes 
a  brilliant  polish  and  is  soft  enough  to  be  easily  worked. 
It  produces  electricity  when  rubbed.  In  fact  the  word 
electricity  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word,  elektron, 
meaning  amber,  because  of  this  characteristic. 

Amber  is  mentioned  by  Homer  and  another  ancient 
writer  says  that  it  was  stained  to  imitate  precious 
stones.  The  Romans  used  amber  for  all  kinds  of  orna- 
ments. 

It  is  much  used  for  beads,  for  necklaces,  mouth- 
pieces for  pipes  and  cigarette-holders,  cane  knobs,  and 
so  on.     It  is  very  durable  and  is  imitated  in  celluloid. 

Bloodstone 

Bloodstone  is  a  form  of  opaque,  dark  green  quartz 
containing  small  red  spots.  The  best  qualities  show 
bright  spots  on  a  uniform  ground.  It  is  not  exten- 
sively used  in  jewelry  now,  except  in  signet  rings, 
where  it  is  used  because  it  can  be  carved  easily. 

Agate 

All  agates  are  varieties  of  quartz.  The  name  agate 
usually  describes  the  variety  which  contains  parallels 
of  different  colors,  spots,  or  patches.  It  is  variously 
known  as  banded,  ribbon,  or  ring  agate,  according  to 
the  formation  of  the  lines.     Agate  in  general  is  little 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 


55 


used  in  modern  jewelry,  although  it  is  much  in  de- 
mand for  art  objects  and  interior  architectural  deco- 
rations. The  center  of  the  industry  of  cutting  and 
polishing  agates  has  been  located  at  Oberstein,  Ger- 
many, for  centuries. 

The  moss  agate,  however,  is  in  vogue  for  jewelry  at 
the  present  time.  This  agate  contains,  instead  of 
parallel  bands,  particles  of  iron  giving  it  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  variety  of  vegetable  growth.  The  finest 
specimens  come  from  India  and  many  beautiful  ones 
are  found  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  the  United  States. 
These  are  cut  and  mounted  for  sale  to  tourists  as 
souvenirs. 

Lapis  Lazuli 

Lapis  lazuli,  or  azure  stone,  is  given  a  place  among 
precious  stones  because  of  its  beautiful  blue  color.  It 
is  frequently  mottled  with  white  spots  and  specks  of 
iron.  The  finest  variety,  found  in  Russia,  has  a  clean 
or  very  slightly  spotted  dark  blue  surface.  Another 
variety,  found  in  Chile,  is  lighter  and  mottled  with 
white  quartz.  Lapis  lazuli  is  also  found  in  India  and 
Burma.    The  stone  is  in  great  demand  at  present. 

Amazonite 

This  is  a  bluish-green  opaque  feldspar.  It  is  found 
in  Siberia  and  Scotland  and  Pike's  Peak,  Colorado ;  and 
is  used  in  scarf-pins  and  cuff  buttons^ 


56 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Azurite 

Azurite  is  a  most  beautiful,  opaque,  blue  stone, 
whose  color  is  due  to  the  presence  of  copper.  As  it  is 
soft,  however,  its  use  for  gem  purposes  is  limited. 

Cairngorm 

Cairngorm  is  a  brown  variety  of  crystal  quartz, 
also  called  "  smoky  topaz."  Its  rich  dark  color  makes 
it  much  desired  for  jewelry. 

Carnelian 

Carnelian  is  a  form  of  quartz,  so  called  on  account 
of  its  flesh  color.  When  found,  however,  it  is  usually 
very  dark,  sometimes  almost  black  or  greenish.  On 
heating  it  becomes  red  and  translucent. 

Carnelian  is  used  as  a  substance  upon  which  to  carve 
devices  for  signets.  It  is  used  for  the  purpose  because 
of  its  uniformity  of  color  and  because  sealing  wax 
does  not  adhere  to  the  stone. 

Labradorite 

Labradorite  is  so  called  because  it  was  first  found  in 
Labrador.  It  has  bright  splashes  of  blue  which  show 
when  turned  to  the  light  but  otherwise  it  has  a  dull  gray 
or  brownish  appearance. 

Malachite 

Malachite  is  a  carbonate  of  copper,  an  opaque  stone 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  STONES 


57 


appearing  in  layers  and  patches  of  green.  It  has  a 
silky  luster  and  takes  a  high  polish.  When  inter- 
mingled with  azurite  it  forms  beautiful  peacock  colors 
and  is  then  called  malachite-azurite. 

Marcasite 

Marcasite  is  often  called  "  fool's  gold  "  because  it  is 
frequently  mistaken  by  the  uninformed  for  gold.  It 
has  little  value,  but  is  used  in  rings,  brooches,  and 
scarf-pins. 

Rhodonite 

Rhodonite  is  opaque  or  translucent,  and  in  color 
pink  or  flesh  color.  It  sometimes  has  black  mark- 
ings. It  occurs  in  large  pieces  making  it  suitable 
for  cutting  jewel  boxes,  paper  weights,  etc.  It  also 
makes  a  very  beautiful  stone  for  cuff-links,  scarf-pins, 
and  artistic  jewelry. 

Smithsonite 

Smithsonite  is  a  translucent  mineral,  apple-green 
or  sky-blue  in  color,  named  for  the  founder  of  Smith- 
sonian Institution  in  Washington,  D.  C.  A  striped 
variety  found  in  Greece  makes  a  striking  gem  for  scarf- 
pins.  As  it  is  rather  soft  it  is  not  much  used  in  other 
ways. 


S8 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Spinel 

Spinel  is  a  beautiful  transparent  gem  found  in  many 
colors,  but  the  flame-red  is  best  known. 

Zircon 

Zircon  is  found  in  a  variety  of  colors,  brown  pre- 
dominating. The  white  stones,  called  jargoon,  are 
sometimes  mistaken  for  diamonds.  It  ranks  second 
to  the  diamond  in  brilliancy  and  also  has  the  adaman- 
tine luster.  It  is  the  heaviest  of  all  gems.  Zircons 
come  chiefly  from  Ceylon. 


Chapter  X 
ARTIFICIAL  AND  IMITATION  STONES 

Difference 

There  is  a  wide  difference  between  artificial  and 
imitation  stones.  Artificial  stones  are  identical  in  com- 
position with  the  natural  stones,  but  they  are  made  in 
the  laboratory  instead  of  by  nature.  The  ruby  and 
the  sapphire  are  the  stones  successfully  made  in  this 
way,  and  these  are  used  in  high-grade  jewelry. 

Imitation  stones,  on  the  other  hand,  are  used  in 
cheap  jewelry,  and  are  only  glass,  or  "  paste  "  repro- 
ductions. 

Synthetic  Stones 

Rubies  and  sapphires  are  made  in  the  laboratory 
from  the  same  chemical  elements  which  enter  into  the 
composition  of  the  genuine  stone.  A  compound  of 
aluminum,  with  the  correct  coloring  matter,  oxide  of 
chromium  for  rubies,  titanic  acid  for  sapphires,  is  al- 
lowed to  trickle  through  a  hole  into  the  flame  of  the 
oxy-hydrogen  blow  pipe,  which  reaches  a  temperature 
of  1800°  C.     The  mass  fuses.     It  is  then  gradually 

59 


6o 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


cooled.  The  resulting  stone  has  all  the  properties  of  a 
genuine  stone  except  the  inner  crystallization  and  there- 
fore the  synthetic  stones  lack  the  "  fire  "  of  real  stones. 
Chemists  for  years  sought  a  practical  method  for 
duplicating  nature's  work.  The  conditions  necessary 
are  extreme  heat  and  high  pressure,  and  it  was  not  un- 
til the  invention  of  the  electric  furnace  and  the  oxy- 
hydrogen  blow  pipe  that  sufficiently  high  temperatures 
could  be  produced.  The  originator  of  the  practical 
method  now  used  was  A.  Veneuil,  a  Frenchman. 

Reconstructed  Stones 

The  term  reconstructed  has  been  erroneously  ap- 
plied to  synthetic  stones.  A  true  reconstructed  stone  is 
formed  from  tiny  fragments  of  genuine  stones,  fused 
at  a  very  high  temperature  into  a  single  stone.  At 
the  present  time,  however,  there  are  no  true  recon- 
structed rubies  or  sapphires  on  the  market. 

"  Faked  "  Real  Stones 

Inferior,  real  stones  which  have  been  altered  and 
improved  in  color  by  heating  or  by  treatment  with 
chemicals  are  also  seen  among  good  jewelry. 

For  example.  Brazilian  topazes,  when  heated  become 
a  beautiful  rose-red  color.  Sapphires  lose  their  color 
in  burning.  Off-color  diamonds  have  been  passed  as 
"  first  water  "  stones  by  dyeing  them  with  a  magenta 
varnish,  which  neutralizes  the  yellowish  color.     This 


IMITATION  STONES 


6r 


wears  off  in  time  and  the  true  color  is  exposed.  A 
suspected  diamond  can  be  soaked  in  alcohol.  This  re- 
moves the  varnish,  if  any  is  present,  and  shows  the 
real  color. 

Imitation  Stones 

The  process  of  making  glass  imitation,  or  **  strasse  " 
stones,  is  similar  to  the  manufacture  of  any  glass.  A 
mixture  of  powdered  quartz,  potassium  carbonate,  and 
lead  to  give  brilliance  gives  a  fairly  good  imitation. 
Rhinestones  are  made  in  this  way.  Definite  propor- 
tions of  coloring  matter  are  added  if  colored  stones 
are  to  be  made.    (  See  manual  on  glass  and  glassware. ) 

Coloring  of  Imitation  Stones 

To  obtain  the  correctly  colored  imitations  for  the 
ruby,  amethyst,  etc.,  traces  of  metallic  oxides  are 
used.  The  proportions  for  the  most  commonly  used 
imitations  are : 


Imitation  ruby        — i,ooo  parts  glass 

40     "      oxide  of  antimony 
I  part    purple  of  cassius 
I     "      gold 


*       sapphire 
••       emerald 


1,000  parts  glass 

25     "      oxide  of  cobalt 


1,000  parts  glass 

8     "      copper  oxide 
.2  "      chromium  oxide 


62 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Imitation  amethyst 

**        garnet 
**        turquoise  ■ 


- 1,000  parts  glass 

25     "      oxide  of  cobalt 
trace  of  oxide  of  manganese 

1,000  parts  glass 

trace  of  purple  of  cassius 

1,000  parts  glass  (opaque  white) 
trace  of  copper  oxide  or  oxide  of 
cobalt 


The  mixture  is  heated  for  about  thirty  hours  in  a 
crucible;  the  heat  is  then  gradually  lowered  and  the 
melted  glass  solidifies. 

The  stones  are  cut  and  polished  in  ♦he  same  way  as 
the  real  stones,  although  the  process  is  simpler  as  the 
glass  is  not  so  hard. 

The  chief  difficulty  encountered  in  the  manufacture 
of  imitation  stones  is  obtaining  a  sufficiently  hard  glass 
to  withstand  the  knocks  and  hard  usage  which  a  real 
stone  will  bear.  A  very  hard  glass  can  be  obtained  but 
it  is  not  brilliant.  The  harder  the  glass  the  less  bril- 
liant the  stone. 

Test  for  Imitation  Stones 

The  test  for  glass  imitations  depends  on  this  lack  of 
hardness,  for  a  piece  of  flint  will  easily  scratch  the 
hardest  paste  known,  but  it  has  no  effect  on  the  ruby, 
sapphire,  and  other  genuine  stones. 

Imitation  Pearls 

Imitation  pearls  may  be  perfectly  made  and  have  the 


IMITATION  STONES 


63 


advantage  of  being  more  durable  than  real  pearls. 
Small  spheres  of  glass,  or  beads,  are  coated  inter- 
nally with  a  preparation  of  fish  scales.  (It  may  be  of 
interest  to  know  that  4,000  fish  are  required  to  make 
one-quarter  of  a  pound  of  "pearl  essence.")  The 
beads  are  then  coated  both  externally  and  internally 
with  pearl  essence,  and  filled  in  with  wax.  They  are 
exceedingly  beautiful  and  have  a  rich  luster,  but  lack 
the  concentric  layer  effect  of  the  true  pearl. 

imitation  Coral 

Imitation  coral  is  made  from  red  gypsum  or  cellu- 
loid. 

Imitation  Amber 

Amber  is  imitated  also  in  celluloid. 

Imitation  Cameos 

Imitation  cameos  may  be  made  by  putting  glass  or 
"  strasse  "  into  a  mold  of  the  raised  portion,  and  melt- 
ing it.  After  cooling,  the  cast  glass  is  trimmed  and 
cemented  on  a  background  of  real  stone.  These  imi- 
tations can  be  detected  by  placing  them  in  hot  water, 
which  dissolves  the  cement  and  the  front  separates 
from  the  back. 

History  of  Imitation  Stones 

The  art  of  imitating  precious  stones  has  been  prac- 
ticed for  centuries. 


64 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


In  the  tombs  of  upper  Egypt  pastes  dating  back  to 
2000  B.  c.  have  been  found.  Even  at  this  early  time 
this  ancient  country  was  in  a  high  state  of  civilization 
and  one  of  their  most  profitable  and  scientific  trades 
was  imitating  all  manner  of  precious  stones. 

Later  on  the  Greeks,  Etruscans,  and  Romans  made 
them.  An  ancient  Roman  historian,  Seneca,  men- 
tions a  process  of  making  emeralds  by  giving  a  green 
color  to  rock  crystal.  The  famous  table  of  Solomon 
taken  from  the  Temple  by  Vespasian,  the  Roman  con- 
queror, was  studded  with  imitations.  Many  of  the 
famous  gems  of  antiquity  were  merely  of  glass. 

In  our  own  times  the  manufacture  of  false  stones 
has  become  a  thriving  industry. 


I 


I 


Part  III — Manufacture  of  Jewelry 


Chapter  XI 

METAL  WORKING 

The  Goldsmith  an  Artist 

Because  of  the  precious  materials  from  which  jew- 
elry is  made  and  the  fact  that  jewelry  is  made  for 
ornament  rather  than  for  practical  use,  the  workman 
has  an  interest  like  that  of  the  artist  in  creating  and 
developing  beautiful  forms  and  combinations. 

Some  of  the  great  sculptors  and  painters  of  Italy 
had  their  early  training  in  the  goldsmith's  shop  and 
the  goldsmith  was  given  a  place  of  honor  and  respect 
among  all  craftsmen. 

The  goldsmith  required  in  his  workshop  many  kinds 
of  appliances,  including: 

A  lamp  for  melting  and  annealing  the  metal. 
Blow  pipes  for  controlling  and  directing  the  flame. 
Charcoal  blocks  upon  which  small  quantities  of 
metal  might  be  melted. 

6s 


66 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Crucibles  or  melting  pans  for  melting  larger  quan- 
tities and  for  making  alloys. 

Draw  plates  for  drawing  out  wire. 

A  draw  bench  in  which  the  draw  plates  were  held 
when  necessary. 

Pitch  blocks  upon  which  sheets  of  metal  were 
placed  for  repousse  work. 

Stakes  or  small  anvils  either  flat  or  rounded  upon 
which  the  metal  was  hammered  and  shaped. 

A  sand  bag. 

Molds  for  casting. 

A  doming  block  for  making  hollow  balls. 

Acid  for  making  the  "  pickle  "  in  which  the  metal 
was  placed  in  order  to  remove  the  film  which 
collected  on  its  surface  when  it  was  annealed. 

Sand,  wax,  borax,  solder,  binding  wire,  and  wire 
gauges,  and  a  work  bench  with  pans  or  leather 
pockets  beneath  it  to  catch  the  tiny  particles  of 
metal  from  filings. 

Enameling  required : 

Mortars  and  pestles  for  grinding  colors. 
Metallic  oxides  and  enamel  materials,  lead,  sheet- 
iron,  aluminum,  ground  glass,  burnishers,  etc. 
A  muffle  furnace  for  firing. 

The  tools  used  for  delicate  work  included : 
Hammers  and  mallets  of  steel  and  horn. 


METAL  WORKING 


67 


P 


I 


Gravers,  chisels,  and  punches  for  chasing  and  re- 
pousse work. 

Files  of  many  kinds  including  a  set  of  "  needle 
files." 

Shears  and  piercing  saws  for  cutting  the  metal. 

Pliers,  nippers,  and  vises  for  holding  and  bending 
the  pieces. 

Mandrels  or  steel  rods  upon  which  wire  was  coiled 
and  rings  shaped. 

Making  of  Jewelry 

Much  of  the  most  artistic  jewelry  was  **  built  up  " 
from  tiny  grains  or  wires  or  shaped  pieces  soldered  to- 
gether instead  of  being  cut  out  of  a  sheet  or  block  of 
metal.  The  designs  were  in  open  filigree  work  or 
backed  with  a  foundation  of  solid  metal. 

Grains  and  Grain  Clusters 

When  gold  or  silver  is  melted  on  a  charcoal  block 
the  metal  does  not  spread  out  in  a  thin  sheet  but  gath- 
ers itself  into  tiny  globules  or  grains.  If  the  block  has 
small  hollows  in  it  these  grains  will  be  of  uniform  or 
graded  sizes. 

Many  beautiful  designs  were  made  of  clustered 
grains  soldered  together  but  they  were  usually  com- 
bined with  wire  which  was  made  by  a  process  called 
"  drawing." 


68 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Wire  Drawing 

If  one  end  of  a  strip  of  soft  metal  is  held  firmly 
and  the  other  end  pulled  with  a  certain  force  it  will 
"  draw ''  or  lengthen  out.  The  draw  plates  used  for 
drawing  wire  were  simply  steel  plates  with  holes  of 
graduated  sizes. 

Wire  drawing  was  one  of  the  most  important 
branches  of  the  jeweler^s  work.  The  bar  or  strip 
of  metal  was  first  hammered  at  one  end  until  it  had  a 
tapering  point  which  fitted  into  one  of  the  holes  of  the 
draw  plate.  It  was  then  grasped  with  a  pair  of  pliers 
and  pulled  through  the  hole.  It  came  out  thinner  and 
longer.  Then  it  was  pulled  through  the  next  smaller 
hole  in  the  same  way  until  the  wire  was  the  required 
size.  The  coarser  wire  from  short  pieces  of  metal 
could  be  drawn  by  hand  but  fine  wire  had  to  be  drawn 
with  the  draw  bench. 

The  holes  of  the  draw  plate  were  not  always  round. 
They  might  be  oblong,  square,  or  triangular,  produc- 
ing different  kinds  of  wire.  Hollow  tubing  was  made 
by  shaping  the  end  of  a  flat  piece  of  metal  around  a 
tapering  mandrel  so  that  it  would  fit  one  of  the  holes 
in  the  draw  plate.  It  was  then  drawn  out  in  the  same 
way  as  the  solid  metal. 

Annealing 

As  the  wire  became  thinner,  the  metal  hardened  and 


METAL  WORKING 


69 


became  brittle  and  had  to  be  annealed  or  softened. 
This  was  accomplished  by  heating  it  to  a  temperature 
below  the  melting  point  and  cooling  it  slowly.  All 
jewelers  had  at  hand  a  jeweler's  spirit  lamp  and  a 
blow  pipe  for  this  purpose. 

The  blow  pipe  was  used  for  increasing  and  direct- 
ing the  flame  of  the  lamp.  A  blow  pipe  is  a  metal  tube 
through  which  a  stream  of  air  may  be  forced  in  order 
to  supply  additional  oxygen  to  a  flame  and  thus  make 
it  hotter.  The  heat  was  regulated  by  increasing  and 
diminishing  the  pressure.  The  mouth  blow  pipe  was 
simply  a  brass  tube  tapered  to  a  fine  point  at  one  end, 
and  the  flame  was  controlled  by  the  breath.  Other 
pipes  had  the  air  forced  in  by  a  bellows  which  was 
operated  with  the  foot. 

Wire  Jewelry 

When  drawn  to  the  required  size,  gold  or  silver  wire 
may  be  twisted,  plaited,  or  cut  into  small  pieces  which 
may  then  be  bent  into  fancy  shapes  and  hammered  into 
leaves  or  other  delicate  designs.  One  of  the  methods 
of  securing  pieces  of  convenient  size  and  shape  was  the 
winding  of  wire  closely  around  a  small  rod  called  a 

mandrel. 

Wire  which  has  been  coiled  around  a  mandrel  looks 
like  a  spiral  spring.  When  the  coils  are  cut  apart  they 
form  small  rings  open  on  one  side.     Some  rings  were 


70 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


made  only  to  be  melted  into  grains  as  this  was  the  best 
way  of  insuring  that  the  grains  would  be  exactly  the 
same  size.  They  were  also  used  to  form  chains  or 
flat  decorations,  being  soldered  together  with  gold 
solder.  Rings  of  a  larger  size  were  bent  separately 
with  pliers,  and  after  being  soldered  together,  were 
shaped  on  a  triblet  or  tapering  mandrel.  Gold  solder 
is  made  of  gold  alloyed  with  copper  and  silver.  The 
alloy  melts  at  a  lower  temperature  than  the  pure  gold 
and  therefore  can  be  applied  without  injury  to  gold 
ornaments. 

Beaded  Wire 

Beaded  wire  was  produced  by  pressure  when  the 
metal  was  soft.  A  quaint  description  of  the  way  in 
which  beaded  wire  was  made  is  given  by  Theophilus, 
a  monk  of  the  eleventh  century : 

"  There  is  an  iron  instrument  called  the  beading  tool, 
which  consists  of  two  irons,  one  above  and  one  below, 
the  lower  part  is  as  broad  and  as  thick  as  the  middle 
finger  and  is  somewhat  thin. 

"  In  it  are  two  spikes  by  which  it  is  fixed  to  wood 
below  and  out  of  the  upper  face  rise  two  thick  pegs 
which  fit  into  the  upper  part  of  the  iron  and  this  upper 
iron  is  of  the  same  size  and  length  as  the  lower  and 
is  pierced  with  two  holes,  one  at  each  end  which  receive 
the  two  pegs  of  the  lower  so  that  they  can  be  joined 
together. 


METAL  WORKING 


71 


) 


"  They  must  be  joined  very  closely  with  the  file  and 
in  both  faces  thou  wilt  groove  out  several  rows  of 
little  pits  in  such  a  way  that  when  the  irons  are  joined 
together  a  little  hole  may  appear. 

"  In  the  large  grooves  place  thou  gold  or  silver  rods 
beaten  out  long  and  smoothly  round,  and  when  the 
upper  iron  is  smartly  struck  with  the  horn  mallet  while 
the  gold  or  silver  rod  is  turned  around  with  the  other 
hand,  grains  are  formed  as  large  as  small  beans,  in  the 
next  grains  as  large  as  peas  are  formed,  and  in  the 
third  like  lentils  and  so  on  smaller." 

Repousse  Work 

Jewelry  which  was  not  built  up  from  grains  and 
wires  was  either  modeled  from  thin  sheets  of  gold  or 
cast  in  a  mold.  The  first  process  is  known  as  repousse 
work.  The  thin  sheet  of  gold  was  laid  on  a  pitch  block 
or  other  yielding  material  such  as  lead  or  soft  wood, 
and  the  design  was  worked  out  slowly  with  hammers 
and  punches  from  the  back.  In  order  that  the  metal 
might  not  be  pierced  or  bent  out  of  shape  the  modeling 
was  done  very  carefully  with  rounded  punches  and  light 
blows  of  the  hammer  repeated  a  great  many  times  and 
occasionally  the  piece  was  removed  from  the  block  and 
worked  down  from  the  right  side. 

Casting 

Casting  is  too  complicated  a  process  to  describe  with- 


^2 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


out  a  number  of  illustrations.  It  was  done  by  melting 
the  metal  and  pouring  it  into  a  mold  made  of  plaster, 
sand,  or  clay. 

A  model  of  the  article  was  first  made  of  wax  or 
clay.  Plaster  of  paris,  sand,  or  other  material  was 
pressed  around  it.  Then  the  model  was  removed  from 
this  cast,  and  the  melted  metal  poured  into  the  space. 
If  the  figure  was  to  be  hollow  a  "  core  "  was  made  like 
the  model  only  smaller.  The  core  was  placed  in  the 
mold  and  the  metal  poured  around  it. 

Very  fine  modeling  was  done  by  the  "  waste  wax  " 
process.  The  wax  model  in  this  case  was  not  pressed 
into  the  sand  but  painted  over  with  a  number  of  thin 
coats  of  wet,  finely  powdered  sand  which  were  allowed 
to  dry  and  harden.  Then  the  wax  was  heated  so  that 
it  melted  and  ran  out,  leaving  a  hollow  shell  of  fine 
sand.  When  the  metal  had  been  poured  into  this  shell 
and  hardened  the  sand  could  be  broken  away. 

After  the  figure  had  been  taken  from  the  mold  it 
was  modeled  and  finished  by  hand. 

Silver  jewelry  was  made  by  the  same  general  process 
though  silver  is  so  much  less  valuable  than  gold  that  the 
work  was  not  usually  so  delicate  and  finely  finished. 

Methods  of  Ornamenting 

Chasing  was  done  from  the  right  side  with  graving 
tools  of  various  kinds.     All  this  work  required  an 


CD 
O 

w 

CO 

O 

o 

4-> 

c 
o 


12 
'o 

O 


W3 
(U 


METAL  WORKING 


73 


« 


1 


eyeglass"  or  small  microscope  which  fitted  in  the 
jeweler's  eye  and  enabled  him  to  see  tiny  flaws  or  ir- 
regularities in  the  pattern. 

Damascening  was  the  cutting  of  grooves  in  the  metal 
and  forcing  into  them  wires  or  pieces  of  another  metal. 

Pierced  work  was  done  with  tiny  saws  or  drills,  but, 
like  carving,  it  was  less  used  for  gold  than  for  silver 
or  copper  jewelry. 

Modern  Methods  of  Manufacture 

Fine  jewelry  still  requires  many  of  the  same  tools 
and  equipment  for  its  manufacture  as  in  the  past,  but 
great  improvements  have  been  made  as  the  result  of 
discoveries  in  chemistry  concerning  the  treatment  of 
metals  and  through  improvements  in  machinery. 

The  jeweler's  lamp  has  been  replaced  by  the  gas  jet 
and  the  blow  pipe  has  been  greatly  improved.  Wire  is 
now  drawn  by  machinery  and  grains  are  obtained  in 
large  quantities  in  the  various  sizes  needed. 

The  increasing  use  of  platinum  for  fine  jewelry  has 
also  modified  the  process  as  platinum  may  be  ham- 
mered, drawn,  or  cut  like  gold  and  silver,  but  melts 
only  at  a  very  high  temperature.  No  ordinary  flame 
will  affect  platinum  so  that  an  oxygen  torch  must  be 
used  for  melting  or  annealing  it. 

Designs  for  platinum  jewelry  are  somewhat  different 
in  character  from  those  suitable  for  gold.  Much  of 
this  jewelry  is  pierced  by  means  of  fine  drills  and 


74 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Studded  with  tiny  stones.  Diamond  jewelry  is  now 
usually  made  of  platinum  incrusted  with  diamonds  and 
set  with  larger  stones  where  these  are  required  by  the 
design.  Figures  2  and  3  show  the  differences  between 
gold  and  platinum  mounts  for  precious  stones. 

Though  methods  have  been  improved  and  some 
operations  can  be  better  performed  by  machinery  than 
by  hand  those  who  wish  distinctive  jewelry  wish  to 
have  it  specially  designed.  In  other  cases  the  original 
is  carefully  wrought  out  and  it  is  then  duplicated  by 
castings  made  in  molds  of  cuttlefish  bone. 

Fashions  come  and  go  in  jewelry  as  in  other 
merchandise  and  the  designer  is  always  trying  to 
create  new  ornaments  which  shall  be  exclusive  as 
well  as  beautiful.  The  manufacturer  is  always  try- 
ing to  find  ways  of  making  these  exclusive  designs 
on  a  commercial  scale.  This  can  only  be  done  by 
lessening  the  handwork  and  gaining  similar  effects 
by  machine  processes. 

Commercial  Jewelry 

Nearly  all  the  jewelry  sold  at  a  moderate  price  is 
now  made  in  large  factories  by  machines.  Hand- 
work is  not  entirely  done  away  with,  but  the  main 
processes  are  carried  out  by  machinery  which  is  very 
wonderful  in  its  perfection  and  delicate  construction. 

The  factory  makes  its  own  alloys,  usually  10  karats 


METAL  WORKING 


75 


or  14  karats  fine,  from  the  pure  gold  which  it  receives 
from  the  government  assayers.  This  alloy  is  cast  into 
small  bars,  and  then  rolled  into  thin  plates  or  drawn 
into  wire  or  tubing  by  machinery. 

Rings,  brooches,  and  other  solid  articles  are  stamped 
out  of  thin  plates  by  means  of  steel  dies,  operated  by 
machines.  Rings  which  are  to  have  claw  settings  are 
cut  in  two  pieces  which  are  soldered  together  in  the 
middle  and  are  then  rounded  in  another  machine  be- 
fore having  the  settings  soldered  in  place.  In  some 
cases  a  machine  stamps  the  claws  out  of  the  plate 
composing  the  ring  instead  of  having  them  made  of  a 
separate  piece  and  soldered  on. 

Brooches  and  lavalieres  are  made  in  the  same  way, 
sometimes  being  cut  in  one  piece,  but  more  often  made 
in  several  pieces  which  are  put  together  by  hand.  A 
number  of  machines  are  usually  required  for  the  com- 
pletion of  each  design.  Chains  are  made  by  machines 
which  turn  the  links  and  join  them  automatically.  A 
long  strip  of*  chain  or  gallery  is  then  put  through  an- 
other machine  which  can  solder  all  the  links  in  a  section 
at  once.  When  finished  it  is  cut  into  the  desired 
lengths  and  the  clasps  or  fastenings  put  on. 

Bracelets  are  cut  from  long  flat  pieces  or  from  tub- 
ing and  finished  with  clasps  and  hinges.  The  original 
designs  for  commercial  jewelry  are  made  with  the 
greatest  care  and  skill,  and  the  machines  used  can  fol- 


1(^ 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


low  these  designs  exactly.     One  remarkable  machine 
is  able  to  copy  a  design  in  seven  different  sizes. 

Sometimes  the  parts  of  rings,  chains,  brooches,  or 
bracelets  are  sent  from  the  factory  in  sets  ready  to  be 
put  together  and  finished  in  the  jeweler's  shop. 

Cheap  Jewelry 

Gold  jewelry  may  range  in  fineness  from  22  karats 
which  is  found  in  old  pieces,  through  18,  16,  to  14 
karats,  which  is  the  accepted  standard  in  America. 
Ten  karat  gold  is  made,  but  as  more  than  half  its  weight 
is  alloy  it  should  not  be  called  solid  gold. 

The  luster  of  the  cheaper  alloys  is  dull  and  they  may 
be  affected  by  dampness. 

Gold-Filled  Jewelry 

For  gold-filled  jewelry  a  thin  shell  of  gold  is  stamped 
with  the  pattern  and  this  shell  is  backed  by  baser  metal, 
after  which  the  back  is  covered  with  an  inferior  quality 

oi  gold.  . 

Seamless  filled  wire  is  made  by  covering  a  wire  with 
gold  and  drawing  it  to  the  required  fineness. 

Rolled  Gold 

Rolled  gold,  or  rolled  plate  is  made  of  exceedingly 
thin  sheets  of  gold  made  to  unite  by  pressure  with  a 
sheet  of  composition.  The  plate  is  rolled  until  it  may 
become  the  thousandth  part  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  but 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


76 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


low  these  designs  exactly.     One  remarkable  machine 
is  able  to  copy  a  design  in  seven  different  sizes. 

Sometimes  the  parts  of  rings,  chains,  brooches,  or 
bracelets  are  sent  from  the  factory  in  sets  ready  to  be 
put  together  and  finished  in  the  jeweler's  shop. 

Cheap  Jewelry 

Gold  jewelry  may  range  in  fineness  from  22  karats 
which  is  found  in  old  pieces,  through  18,  16,  to  14 
karats,  which  is  the  accepted  standard  in  America. 
Ten  karat  gold  is  made,  but  as  more  than  half  its  weight 
is  alloy  it  should  not  be  called  solid  gold. 

The  luster  of  the  cheaper  alloys  is  dull  and  they  may 
be  affected  by  dampness. 

Gold-Filled  Jewelry 

For  gold-filled  jewelry  a  thin  shell  of  gold  is  stamped 
with  the  pattern  and  this  shell  is  backed  by  baser  metal, 
after  which  the  back  is  covered  with  an  inferior  quality 

01  gold. 

Seamless  filled  wire  is  made  by  covering  a  wire  with 
gold  and  drawing  it  to  the  required  fineness. 

Rolled  Gold 

Rolled  gold,  or  rolled  plate  is  made  of  exceedingly 
thin  sheets  of  gold  made  to  unite  by  pressure  with  a 
sheet  of  composition.  The  plate  is  rolled  until  it  may 
become  the  thousandth  part  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  but 


fei 


METAL  WORKING 


77 


even  then  it  will  not  tarnish  or  be  affected  by  acids  if 
it  is  more  than  14  karat  gold.  The  plates  are  then  an- 
nealed and  polished  on  the  gold  side  with  rottenstone 
and  oil. 

Rolled  gold  may  be  of  any  quality  or  thickness.  In 
Germany  an  official  stamp  is  placed  on  the  best  rolled 
plate  guaranteeing  its  quality  and  thickness;  but  in 
England  the  assay  office  does  not  recognize  anything 
but  solid  gold  and  the  United  States  is  equally  indiffer- 
ent to  the  quality  of  rolled  or  filled  gold.  A  revision 
of  the  stamping  laws  in  the  United  States  is  now  in 
progress  and  this  defect  will  probably  be  remedied. 

Electroplating 

When  we  speak  of  gold-plated  jewelry,  we  now  mean 
articles  which  have  been  electroplated.  This  is  a 
modem  method  of  covering  articles  with  a  very  thin 
coat  of  gold  or  silver  by  means  of  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity. 

For  gold  plating  an  enameled  iron  saucepan  can  be 
used,  with  the  articles  to  be  plated  attached  to  one  pole 
of  an  electric  battery  and  a  piece  of  solid  gold  to  the 
other.  Then  the  saucepan  is  filled  with  a  gold  solution 
and  placed  over  a  gas  burner  or  lamp.  Manufacturers 
of  gold  plate  have  vats  of  enameled  iron  heated  with 
Bunsen  burners  and  containing  from  ten  to  thirty  gal- 
lons of  the  gold  solution. 


78 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


The  electric  current  acting  on  the  sheet  of  gold 
transfers  it  through  the  liquid  to  the  article  to  be 
plated  until  it  is  covered  with  a  very  thin  coat  of  the 
precious  metal.  If  the  article  is  made  of  zinc,  lead, 
or  pewter,  it  must  first  be  plated  with  copper  and  it 
must  be  absolutely  clean.  A  strong  coat  is  deposited 
in  a  few  minutes.  For  a  thick  deposit  the  article  must 
be  taken  out  and  brushed  with  scratch  brushes  to  re- 
move a  brown  film  which  collects  on  it.  A  frosted 
appearance  is  given  by  roughening  the  surface.  The 
color  depends  on  the  temperature  of  the  solution  and 
the  thickness  of  the  deposit. 

When  taken  out  the  articles  are  weighed  to  determine 
the  quantity  of  the  gold.  They  are  rinsed  in  pure  wa- 
ter and  dried  in  sawdust.  At  this  stage  the  surface  is 
dull  and  must  go  through  several  polishing  processes 
in  which  soft  mops  of  swans-down,  felt,  or  chamois  are 
used  to  apply  rouge  and  emery  powder. 

The  process  of  silver-plating  is  similar  except  that 
the  vats  are  larger,  sometimes  holding  several  hundred 
gallons.  The  articles  to  be  silver-plated  must  be  sus- 
pended by  copper  wire  and  the  anodes  of  the  battery 
attached  to  copper  rods  because  silver  is  such  a  good 
conductor  of  electricity.  Iron  or  steel  must  be  copper- 
plated  before  receiving  the  coat  of  silver. 

Tinting 

The  tinting  of  gold  is  a  process  by  which  the  color 


METAL  WORKING 


79 


of  gold  is  changed  without  changing  its  real  character. 
It  is  done  to  produce  artistic  effects  such  as  "  dull 
gold."  The  article  must  first  be  absolutely  clean,  even 
the  film  left  by  the  hand  must  be  removed  or  the  acids 
used  will  not  act  evenly  on  every  part. 

When  the  article  has  been  carefully  washed  it  is 
plunged  in  a  hot  bath  of  nitric  acid  to  remove  the  silver 
or  copper  alloy  from  the  surface;  then  alum,  salt- 
peter, salt,  nitrate  of  potash,  hydrochloric  acid,  or 
other  substances  are  used  in  solutions  to  give  the  de- 
sired effect.  The  objects  to  be  colored  are  plunged 
into  the  hot  solution.  This  process  may  be  repeated  a 
number  of  times  till  the  right  tint  is  secured;  after 
which  the  articles  are  brushed  and  polished. 

Roman  gold  is  gold  from  which  the  luster  has  been 
removed  by  nitric  acid. 


1 


Chapter  XII 

CUTTING  OF  PRECIOUS  STONES 

Importance 

The  cutting  is  the  most  important  treatment  given  to 
the  stone,  the  beauty  of  which  depends  to  a  large  extent 
upon  the  skill  and  accuracy  of  the  cutter. 

Styles 

There  are  two  principal  styles  of  gem  cutting : 

1.  Faceted  cutting,  in  which  the  surface  of  the  stone 

consists  of  a  large  number  of  small,  geometri- 
cal faces. 

2.  Cabochon    cutting,    in    which    the    surface    is 

smoothly  curved. 

Facet  Cutting 

The  purpose  of  cutting  gems  with  facets  is  to  in- 
crease their  sparkle,  and  therefore  it  is  the  transparent 
and  semitransparent  stones,  such  as  the  diamond,  the 
ruby,  the  sapphire,  etc.,  which  are  cut  in  this  style. 

There  are  three  styles  of  facet  cutting: 

Brilliant 

Rose 

Step 

80 


CUTTING  OF  PRECIOUS  STONES 


81 


Brilliant  Cut 

The  brilliant  cut  is  the  most  popular  of  all  and  is 
the  one  used  for  the  most  valuable  stones,  as  the  dia- 
mond, the  ruby,  the  sapphire,  the  amethyst,  etc. 

In  this  style  there  are  58  facets  altogether,  33  in  the 
section  known  as  the  "crown,"  which  lies  above  the 
"  girdle,"  or  greatest  circumference  of  the  stone,  and 
25  in  the  "  culasse,"  the  portion  below  the  girdle. 
(See  Figure  4.) 

There  are  many  modifications  of  the  brilliant  pattern, 
the  finished  form  of  the  stone  depending  upon  the 
character  of  the  rough  gem.  However,  certain  pro- 
portions of  size  and  arrangement  of  the  facets  are  ad- 
hered to.  For  example,  if  a  diamond  is  properly  pro- 
portioned, after  it  is  cut,  the  depth  from  the  table  or 
top  plane  down  to  a  line  with  the  girdle  is  just  one- 
third  of  the  entire  depth.  The  table  would  take  up 
one-third  of  the  face,  and  each  side  running  from  the 
table  to  the  girdle  would  also  measure  one-third  of  the 
face  of  the  stone.  These  proportions  affect  the  bril- 
liancy of  the  diamond.  For  instance,  a  stone  of  good 
color,  cut  shallow  with  a  large  table,  will  have  a  bril- 
liant edge,  but  the  center  will  have  what  is  known  as  a 
"  fish  eye  "  as  the  culet  or  bottom  plane  will  be  seen 
through  the  stone. 

A  colored  stone  is  usually  cut  shallower  than  a  color- 
less one,  the  deeper  the  color,  the  thinner  the  stone. 


f- 


82 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


The  half-brilliant  cut  is  sometimes  used  in  very 
thin  stones.  The  lower  part  of  the  stone  is  a  plane 
surface;  the  upper  part  is  cut  like  the  crown  of  the 

ordinary  brilliant. 

The  brilliant  cut  was  originated  by  a  Venetian  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  its  dis- 
covery first  brought  out  the  true  beauty  of  the  diamond. 

Rose  Cut 

In  the  rose  cut  all  the  facets  are  nearly  of  a  size  and 
triangular  in  shape.  The  stone  shines  with  a  very 
mellow  but  subdued  luster,  as  it  has  a  flat  base.  This 
form  of  cutting  was  first  used  about  1655  and  was  one 
of  the  earlier  ways  of  cutting  diamonds.     (See  Figure 

Sometimes  a  stone  is  double  rose  cut,  the  form  of 
two  rose  cut  stones  joined  together  by  their  plane  sur- 
faces.    This  is  called  "  briolette ''  or  "  rosette." 

Step  Cut 

This  style  of  cutting  is  so  called  because  when  viewed 
from  the  side  the  facets  form  a  series  of  steps.  The 
crown  may  have  two  or  three  steps,  the  culasse  five  or 
six  or  more.  Step  cut  stones  are  usually  square  or  six- 
sided.     (See  Figure  4) 

This  form  of  cut  is  suitable  for  stones  where  a  dis- 
play of  color  is  the  chief  consideration,  rather  than  a 
brilliant  play  of  light  from  the  interior.    If  a  light 


CUTTING  OF  PRECIOUS  STONES 


83 


,^ 


<^^ 


^cS^ 


/O^ 


10 


1.  Round    Brilliant    (toi)   view) 

2.  Oval  Brilliant  (top  view) 

3.  Rose   Cut    (top  view) 

4.  Round  Brilliant  (side  view) 

5.  Cushion    Brilliant    (top    view) 

6.  Rose  Cut  (side  view) 


i^ 


7.  Step  Cut  (octagon) 

8.  Pear  Brilliant   (top  view) 

9.  Step  Cut  (oblong) 

10.  Cabochon  (side  view) 

11.  High  Cabochon  (side  view) 

12.  Lentil  Shape  (side  view) 


Figure  4.    Styles  of  Cutting  Precious  Stones 

(Courtesy  of  Espositer,  Varni  Company) 


84 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


color  is  desired,  the  stone  is  cut  shallow  so  that  the 
light  may  easily  penetrate;  if  a  dark  color  is  desired 
it  is  cut  deep  to  secure  a  deep  tone. 

The  stones  most  often  cut  in  this  form  are  the  topaz, 
sapphire,  ruby,  emerald,  garnet,  peridot,  and  amethyst. 

Curved  Surface  Cutting  —  Cabochon 

In  this  style  the  upper  surface  of  the  stone  is  the 
shape  of  a  low  dome.  The  under  surface  is  usually 
flat,  although  it  sometimes  follows  the  curve  of  the 
outer  edge.     ( See  Figure  4. ) 

It  is  used  to  bring  out  the  natural  color  and  luster  of 
opaque  and  translucent  stones ;  therefore  such  stones  as 
the  turquoise,  garnet,  lapis  lazuli,  carbuncle,  cat's  eye, 
star  sapphire,  etc.,  are  usually  cut  cabochon. 

Difficulties  in  Cutting  Valuable  Stones 

The  cutting  of  a  valuable  stone  from  the  rough  form 
is  a  highly  skilled  operation,  and  great  delicacy  of 
touch  as  well  as  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  cutter  is 
required  to  produce  the  final  treasure. 

The  cutter  must  carefully  study  the  rough  stone  to 
determine  how  he  can  get  the  greatest  beauty  and  value 
from  it,  and  at  the  same  time  diminish  it  in  size  as 
little  as  possible.  He  must  take  into  consideration  the 
proportions  of  the  stone.  How  exact  these  should  be 
was  described  imder  the  brilliant  cut,  in  the  case  of  the 
diamond. 


CUTTING  OF  PRECIOUS  STONES 


85 


Slitting 

The  first  process  is  "  slitting."  The  rough  stone  is 
held  against  a  circular  revolving  plate  made  of  thin 
metal  on  the  edge  of  which  there  is  diamond  dust, 
which  causes  it  to  cut  easily.  - 

Faceting 

For  gems  which  are  to  be  faceted,  the  principal  facets 
are  next  outlined  by  a  horizontally  revolving  wheel. 
The  stone  here  takes  on  a  definite  form.  Each  gem  is 
then  cemented  to  the  end  of  a  wood  holder,  very  much 
like  the  ordinary  penholder.  The  faceting  is  then  fin- 
ished on  other  wheels. 

Polishing 

At  the  end  of  the  faceting  operations  the  gem  is 
dull,  colorless,  and  uninteresting.  Its  brilliance  and 
color  are  brought  out  by  the  polishing  process. 

This  is  accomplished  on  a  disk  with  some  polishing 
material,  such  as  rottenstone.  This  operation  is  also 
a  very  delicate  one,  as  the  angle  or  size  of  the  facet 
must  not  be  changed. 

Loss  of  Size  During  Cutting 

In  the  processes  of  cutting  and  polishing  a  large 
rough  stone  will  lose  5  per  cent  or  more  of  its  weight, 
a  small  one  40  per  cent. 
Center  of  Diamond-Cutting  Industry 

Holland  and  Belgium  have  been  the  centers  of  the 


i 


86 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


diamond-cutting  industry,  but  the  United  States  has 
now  established  a  number  of  factories  with  great  tech- 
nical perfection  and  more  uniform  standards  than  those 
in  Europe.  The  center  of  the  industry  is  New  York 
City. 

Diamond  Cleaving 

When  the  rough  diamonds  arrive  at  the  factory  they 
are  weighed  and  the  weight  of  each  is  recorded  with 
its  other  characteristics  in  a  book.  Each  stone  is  then 
examined  closely  in  order  to  determine  the  direction  of 
the  planes  of  cleavage  which  can  only  be  recognized 
by  an  expert. 

The  cleaver  then  cements  the  diamond  to  a  wooden 
stick  and  with  another  diamond  cuts  a  narrow  groove 
in  it  at  the  exact  place  selected.  A  dull  steel  knife  is 
inserted  in  this  groove  and  a  smart  blow  struck  upon 
it.  If  this  has  been  skilfully  done  the  diamond  divides 
at  once  and  both  surfaces  are  as  smooth  as  if  they 
had  been  polished. 

This  process  requires  the  greatest  care  and  skill  on 
the  part  of  the  cleaver  as  any  error  would  cause  serious 
loss.  If  the  groove  is  not  exactly  in  the  right  place 
flaws  are  apt  to  appear  when  the  stone  is  split  thus 
greatly  lessening  its  value. 

Diamond  Sawing 

A  new  method  has  recently  been  introduced  by  which 


CUTTING  OF  PRECIOUS  STONES 


87 


stones  may  be  sawed  through  the  center  and  cleavage 
need  not  be  considered.  This  gives  much  better  re- 
sults than  cleaving  though  the  former  method  is  still 
used  for  large  diamonds. 

One-half  of  the  stone  to  be  sawed  is  embedded  in  a 
small  metal  receptacle  filled  with  melted  aluminum  in  a 
machine  run  by  an  individual  electric  motor.  The  edge 
of  a  circular  bronze  saw  is  set  against  the  stone  on  the 
line  selected  and  gradually  cuts  its  way  through. 
These  saws  are  almost  as  thin  as  paper  and  are  charged 
with  a  paste  of  diamond  dust  and  olive  oil.  They  make 
three  thousand  revolutions  a  minute. 

The  time  required  to  saw  a  stone  in  half  depends 
upon  its  size.  A  large  diamond  takes  from  three  to 
four  days.  If  the  saw  were  not  charged  with  diamond 
dust  the  stone  would  destroy  it  in  a  short  time. 

Cutting  and  Polishing  Diamonds 

The  diamond  is  cemented  to  the  center  of  a  rotating 
cutting  lathe  and  another  diamond  is  cemented  to  a 
long  stick.  The  operator  presses  the  stone  on  the 
stick  steadily  against  the  stone  in  the  lathe  at  the  proper 
angle  until  the  stone  in  the  lathe  becomes  rounded  and 
smooth.  The  other  stone  is  then  put  in  its  place  in 
the  center  of  the  lathe  and  their  mutual  action  is  re- 
versed until  both  stones  are  shaped  and  ready  for  the 
cutting  of  the  facets. 

This  work  is  done  upon  iron  wheels  called  "  skaifs  " 


88 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


which  make  twenty-two  hundred  revolutions  per  min- 
ute. The  diamond  powder  produced  at  the  cutting  is 
the  only  material  used  for  polishing.  It  is  applied  with 
olive  oil  forming  a  paste  which  the  polisher  uses  on  his 
wheel.  The  utmost  skill  and  watchfulness  are  neces- 
sary as  the  angles  of  the  facets  must  be  mathematically 
exact  in  order  to  secure  the  greatest  brilliancy.  Some- 
times a  gauge  is  used  and  each  facet  measured. 

The  smooth  surface  made  by  the  saw  becomes  the 
table  of  the  diamond  which  the  polisher  first  cuts  on 
four  sides  and  then  divides  each  section  in  half,  making 
eight  equal  surfaces  extending  to  the  girdle.  The 
number  of  facets  cut  from  the  girdle  to  the  culet  ex- 
actly corresponds  to  the  ones  above. 

This  accomplished,  the  stone  is  ready  for  its  "  bril- 
landeening,''  or  making  the  small  facets.  Eight  star 
facets  are  cut  close  to  the  table  and  sixteen  small  facets 
run  from  the  stars  to  the  girdle  while  sixteen  small 
facets  are  cut  from  the  girdle  down  to  the  culet. 

The  perfectly  cut  diamond  should  have  fifty-eight 
facets.  Above  the  girdle  there  are  eight  division 
facets,  eight  star  facets,  sixteen  small  facets,  and  one 
table,  thirty-three  in  all ;  below  the  girdle  there  are  eight 
division  facets,  sixteen  small  facets,  and  one  culet, 
twenty-five  in  all ;  making  a  total  of  fifty-eight  in  the 
finished  diamond.     (See  Figure  4.) 

During  this  process  the  stone  is  imbedded  in  a  ball  of 


CUTTING  OF  PRECIOUS  STONES 


89 


hot  lead  from  which  it  must  be  taken  out  and  reinserted 

eight  times. 

By  modern  American  methods  the  loss  in  cutting  and 
polishing  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  scientific  methods, 
but  the  demand  for  perfect  stones  is  greater  than  in 
Europe,  making  the  quality  assured  but  increasing  the 
price. 

Diamond  cutting  is  one  of  the  most  highly  skilled  of 
all  occupations.  The  workmen  require  five  years'  ap- 
prenticeship before  they  are  qualified  to  take  positions 
as  skilled  artizans. 

Cabochon  Cutting 

In  cutting  stones  cabochon  the  operator  keeps  the 
handle  on  which  the  gem  is  mounted  in  constant  motion 
so  as  to  give  a  smoothly  rounded  form. 

Special  Cuts 

In  addition  to  these  two  principal  groups  of  cuts 
there  are  special  forms  of  cutting  such  as : 

Cameo  Monogram 

Intaglio  Scarab 

Crest 

Cameos 

During  the  last  few  seasons  the  fashion  for  cameos 
has  been  revived,  and  they  are  at  present  very  popular. 

A  satisfactory  definition  of  the  word  cameo  is  not 
easy  to  give  because  it  may  be  applied  to  so  large  a 


90 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


group  of  carved  materials,  and  yet  does  not  include  all. 
One  writer,  Percivale,  defines  a  cameo  as  **  A  carv- 
ing in  relief  on  some  hard  substance  of  intrinsic  beauty 
or  value." 

Materials  Used  in  Cameos 

The  substances  upon  which  cameos  are  cut  include 
all  precious  and  semiprecious  stones,  such  as  emeralds, 
carbuncles,  amethysts,  turquoises,  agates,  onyx,  ja- 
cinth, and  a  number  of  others  and  also  amber,  mother- 
of-pearl,  shells,  coral,  ivory,  and  precious  metals. 

Cameos  may  be  cut  from  a  material  all  of  one  color, 
but  the  term  is  usually  associated  with  delicate  carvings 
on  a  material  having  layers  of  different  colors  which 
serve  to  bring  out  the  beauty  of  the  design,  sometimes 
as  a  background  only,  sometimes  with  tints  and  shades 
which  shine  through  the  translucent  figures  in  certain 
places. 

Stone  Cameos 

Onyx  and  the  various  forms  of  agate  from  which 
the  largest  number  of  stone  cameos  are  cut,  do  not 
have  their  colors  in  horizontal,  even  layers,  but  with 
little  bends  and  curves,  thicker  in  some  places  than 
in  others.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  deposits  were 
made  in  hollows  of  the  rock  by  trickling  drops  of  water 
which  carried  coloring  matter  in  the  form  of  metallic 
oxides.    The  layers  took  the  shape  of  the  hollows. 


CUTTING  OF  PRECIOUS  STONES 


91 


When  the  artist  cuts  a  cameo  he  considers  these 
variations  in  the  stone  as  a  part  of  the  design,  and 
tries  to  make  them  add  to  its  beauty.  Stone  cameos 
must  be  cut  with  a  diamond  point  or  drill  and  grinding 
wheels  such  as  are  used  in  faceting.  The  height  of 
the  relief  and  elaborateness  of  detail  give  the  carving 
its  value.  They  are  polished  with  diamond  dust  or 
emery. 

Shell  Cameos 

A  large  number  of  the  cameos  now  made  are  cut  on 
the  inner  surface  of  shells  such  as  the  pearl  oyster, 
the  abalone,  and  other  beautifully  tinted  sea  shells. 

Shell  cameos  are  not  so  valuable  as  those  cut  from 
stone,  but  they  are  softer  in  color  and  often  very  beau- 
tiful. All  the  work  must  be  done  by  hand,  the  tools 
being  similar  to  those  used  for  carving  or  engraving 
metal.  They  may  be  polished  with  rottenstone. 
Brown  and  white  and  pink  and  white  shells  are  most 
adaptable  to  cameo  cutting,  as  beautiful  flesh  tints  may 
be  secured  where  the  color  shows  through  a  thin  upper 
layer  of  shell.  The  human  head  and  figure  is  the 
favorite  subject  for  cameos. 

History  of  Cameos 

The  earliest  known  were  made  in  Egypt,  where  the 
scarab  or  sacred  beetle  was  carved  in  stone  or  molded 
in  pottery.  Scarabs  were  worn  as  amulets.  From 
there  the  art  was  taken  to  Greece  where  it  was  per- 


92 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


fected.  No  modern  cameos  equal  in  beauty  the  finest 
of  the  Greek  specimens  which  are  very  valuable  and  are 
preserved  in  museums  and  private  collections  among 
their  choicest  art  treasures. 

The  Romans  were  great  collectors  of  cameos,  but 
they  employed  Greek  workmen  to  make  them.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  the  Byzantine  cameos  were  less  graceful 
and  beautiful  because  all  their  art  was  more  rigid  and 
formal. 

At  the  time  of  the  Renaissance  when  everything  clas- 
sic was  in  fashion,  the  ancient  cameos  were  imitated 
and  often  actual  forgeries  were  made  of  the  signature 
on  the  back.  Queen  Elizabeth  was  a  great  lover  of 
cameos  and  her  own  portrait  was  carved  on  a  number 
of  them. 

Italy  is  the  source  of  most  of  our  cameos  today,  but 
they  are  no  longer  made  by  great  artists  and  so  do  not 
equal  the  older  ones. 

Imitation  Cameos 

Imitation  cameos  have  been  made  of  glass  either 
cut  and  polished  or  simply  molded,  or  of  pottery.  The 
Wedgewood  pottery  medallions  look  like  cameos  with 
their  green,  violet,  buff,  or  pale  blue  backgrounds,  and 
white  figures. 

Intaglios 

Intaglios  are  the  exact  opposites  of  cameos,  as  the 
design  is  cut  into  the  stone  instead  of  being  carved  in 


CUTTING  OF  PRECIOUS  STONES 


93 


relief.  As  intaglios  have  been  used  principally  for 
seals  they  are  nearly  always  small  and  oval  in  shape. 
Intaglios  are  often  in  the  form  of  crests  or  monograms 
with  which  the  wax  is  impressed  in  sealing  a  letter. 

Scarab 

The  scarab,  which  was  the  earliest  form  of  carved 
cameo,  has  remained  as  an  individual  cutting  to  the 
present  time.  The  sacred  beetle  of  Egypt  was  a  sym- 
bol of  immortality  and  many  of  the  little  green  or  blue 
stones  cut  in  this  form  have  been  found  in  the  tombs 
and  ruins  in  Egypt,  but  many  also  have  been  forged 
to  imitate  these  treasures.  The  scarab  is  cut  with  the 
beetle's  wings  folded,  but  it  is  often  set  between  two 
long  outspread  wings. 

History  of  Cutting 

The  art  of  gem  cutting  is  very  ancient.  As  early  as 
1285  an  organization  called  a  guild  of  gem  cutters 
existed  in  Paris;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  art  was 
practiced  long  before  this. 

One  Ludwig  Van  Berguen,  or  Louis  de  Berquem 
(French),  is  given  credit  for  first  cutting  a  diamond 
with  facets  in  about  1460.  It  is  said  that  the  king 
sent  him  three  diamonds  to  cut.  The  first  one  had  a 
very  romantic  history,  being  taken  as  spoils  of  war,  and 
it  may  still  be  seen  in  the  collection  owned  by  the 
Spanish  royalty.  Throughout  the  sixteenth  century 
the  style  which  de  Berquem  introduced  prevailed. 


ii^ 


Chapter  XIII 

SETTING  OF  STONES 

Characteristics  of  Good  Settings 

The  setting  of  precious  stones  is  exceedingly  inter- 
esting work  and  requires  great  skill  :n  order  that  the 
stones  may  be  held  firmly  and  yet  show  no  unnecessary 
thickness  of  metal  and  no  mark  of  the  process. 

Tools 

The  tools  used  in  setting  stones  consist  of : 

Drills  for  making  holes  in  metal  or  flat  stones. 
Scorpers  for  hollowing  out  the  metal. 
Piercing  saws,  files,  and  shears. 
Push  tools   for  pressing  the  stone  home  in  its 

setting. 
Setting  or  pressing  tools  for  pushing  down  the 

tops  of  the  claws. 
Graining  tools,  hollow  at  the  end,  for  shaping  the 

metal  into  grains. 
A  roulette  wheel  with  depressions  like  a  tracing 

wheel  for  making  a  row  of  small  grains  upon  a 

narrow  edge  of  metal. 

94 


SETTING  OF  STONES 


95 


Triblets   for  turning  up  and  shaping  rings  or 

collets. 
Sticks  of  wood  with  a  knob  of  cement  at  the  top 

upon  which  small  articles  are  held  firmly  while 

working  with  them. 
A  wax  stick  to  pick  up  stones  when  trying  them 

in  the  settings. 
Burnishers  and  polishing  materials. 
Stones  for  sharpening  and  burnishing. 

Styles 

Settings  may  be  open  or  closed,  that  is,  they  may 
show  the  lower  part  of  a  stone  between  the  parts  of  the 
setting  or  from  beneath  or  they  may  be  like  a  solid  cup 
showing  only  the  top  of  the  stone. 

The  principal  settings  are : 

Claw  or  Coronet 

Cut  Down 

Gypsy  or  Flush 

Roman 

Rubbed  Over,  Band,  or  Clamp 

Thread  or  Thread  and  Grain 

Claw  Setting 

The  claw  setting  is  the  one  most  used  for  diamonds 
and  other  very  brilliant  stones  because  it  allows  the 
light  to  strike  the  lower  part  of  the  stone  and  add  to 


96 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


its  brightness.     It  is  made  by  cutting  a  strip  of  metal 
the  proper  size  for  the  setting  desired,  and  bending  it 
into  a  ring  which  is  soldered  together.     This  is  called 
the  "collet."     The  collet  is  then  put  on  the  cement 
stick  where  it  is  held  firmly  while  a  tiny  shelf  or 
"bearer"   is  cut  into  the  inner  surface  about  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  from  the  top.     This  shelf  is  for 
the  stone  to  rest  on  just  below  the  girdle.     Some  stones 
are  shaped  so  that  they  do  not  require  the  shelf.     Then 
the  metal  is  cut  out  above  and  below  this  shelf,  leaving 
the  claws.     A  disk  of  metal  is  soldered  on  the  lower 
claws  to  form  a  base  and  a  hole  is  drilled  in  it  for  the 
point  of  the  stone  if  it  is  a  brilliant  cut.     The  claws 
are  forced  apart  to  receive  the  stone.     After  placing  it, 
the  ends  of  the  claws  are  bent  down  over  the  stone, 
shaped,  and  smoothed  down. 

Cut  Down  Setting 

A  cut  down  setting  is  cut  at  first  like  the  claw  setting, 
but  instead  of  having  claws  cut  out  it  is  left  as  a  solid 
ring.  The  lower  edge  of  this  collet  is  beveled  off  to 
form  the  base.  When  the  stone  has  been  placed  on  the 
bearer  the  upper  rim  is  pressed  down  over  it  and  small 
sections  of  the  rim  are  cut  out  so  that  it  will  fit  per- 
fectly. 

Flush  Setting 

A  flush  setting  is  made  by  drilling  a  hole  in  the  solid 


SETTING  OF  STONES 


97 


metal  just  large  enough  to  hold  the  stone.  The  metal 
outside  the  hole  is  filed  down  so  as  to  leave  a  narrow 
ring  or  bank  extending  above  the  edge  of  the  stone. 
This  bank  is  pressed  down  on  the  stone  until  the  ridge 
has  disappeared  and  then  filed  till  it  is  true  and  level. 

Roman  Setting 

A  Roman  setting  is  made  like  a  flush  setting  by  drill- 
ing a  hole  for  the  stone,  but  in  this  case  a  groove  is  cut 
all  around  the  stone  and  very  near  it.  Then  a  smooth 
round  tool  is  rubbed  along  the  groove  until  the  rim  of 
gold  next  to  the  stone  is  pressed  down  on  it.  The 
groove  is  then  smoothed  down  and  the  setting  finished 
and  polished. 

Band  Setting 

A  band  setting  is  made  with  a  strip  of  metal  bent 
into  a  ring  which  is  soldered  onto  another  flat  piece 
of  metal  or  on  the  face  of  the  pin  or  other  piece  of 
jewelry.  A  smaller  ring  for  the  bearer  is  soldered 
inside  of  the  band  or  the  stone  may  rest  on  the  metal 
at  the  bottom  of  the  band.  The  top  is  pressed  down 
over  the  stone.  The  clamp  setting  has  part  of  the  bor- 
der filed  away,  leaving  little  points  to  bend  over  the 
stone. 

Thread  Setting 

A  thread  or  "  thread  and  grain  "  setting  may  be  used 


98 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


where  a  number  of  stones  are  set  close  together. 
Holes  are  drilled  for  the  stones  as  in  the  flush  or 
Roman  setting  but,  as  there  are  spaces  between  the 
stones  to  be  filled  in,  little  curls  of  metal  are  scooped 
out,  pushed  up  against  the  stones,  and  rubbed  over  with 
the  graining  tool.     They  hold  the  stones  fast 

Settings  for  Special  Stones 

Stones  cut  en  cabochon  usually  have  closed  settings. 
Enamels  or  cameos,  which  should  not  have  any  pres- 
sure for  fear  of  damage,  are  set  from  the  back  by  mak- 
ing a  ring  deeper  than  the  enamel  and  bending  over  the 
upper  rim  before  placing  it.  Then  a  ring  is  put  in  the 
collet  back  of  the  stone  and  soldered  on  with  soft  solder 
or  secured  with  tiny  pins. 

Pearls  have  holes  drilled  in  them  and  are  secured  by 
pins  to  the  setting.  Pearls  may  have  plaster  of  paris 
put  in  the  setting  to  form  the  desirable  white  back- 
ground and  other  jewels  may  have  metal  foil  back  of 
them  tinted  to  enhance  their  color. 

Jewelers  can  buy  the  collets  of  stones  already  made, 
or  they  can  buy  "  gallery  "  for  claw  settings  with  the 
claws  already  cut.  This  can  be  cut  the  right  size, 
soldered  together,  and  finished.  Rings  and  other 
pieces  are  often  made  in  the  factory  complete  except 
for  setting  the  stones  and  finishing. 


Chapter  XIV 

ENAMEL  IN  JEWELRY 

Characteristics  of  Enamel 

On  many  pieces  of  jewelry  we  see  colored  decora- 
tions which  look  like  precious  stones  or  colored  glass, 
we  cannot  tell  which.  Sometimes  the  color  has  fine 
lines  of  gold  running  through  it.  Sometimes  it  is  clear 
and  sometimes  opaque.  It  may  be  even  with  the  sur- 
face and  polished  or  it  may  be  uneven  and  unpolished. 
In  jewelry  from  Hungary  or  Russia,  we  find  that  the 
colored  material  is  enclosed  by  metal  at  the  sides,  but 
there  is  none  at  the  back.  We  can  see  the  light  through 
it 

If  it  has  metal  at  the  back  we  can  sometimes  see  fine 
patterns  drawn  underneath  the  color  which  give  it 
golden  lights,  while  some  French  jewelry  has  an  eflFect 
of  gray  and  black  and  white  and  just  the  faintest  color. 

All  of  these  varieties  and  their  cheaper  imitations 
are  called  "enameled"  jewelry.  The  decoration  is 
made  of  melted  glass  which  is  poured  or  spread  upon 
the  metal  in  very  small  quantities  and  then  put  into  a 

99 


lOO 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


i 


hot  oven  to  be  "  fired/'  or  hardened  onto  it.  Enamel 
color  is  not  on  or  under  the  glaze,  but  in  it  and  it  must 
be  annealed  to  the  surface  of  the  metal. 

Enameling 

The  name  enamel  is  given  to  any  hard,  glassy  outer 
coating.  Enamel  may  be  a  coating  fused  on  glass, 
pottery,  metal,  or  any  mineral  surface  that  will  stand 
enough  heat  to  fuse  it,  but  when  we  say  "  an  enamel  " 
we  mean  enameled  metal. 

There  are  seven  different  kinds  of  enamel: 

1.  Cloisonne 

2.  Champleve 

3.  Repousse 

4.  Baisse  Taille 

5.  Plique  a  Jour 

6.  Encrusted  Enamel 

7.  Painted  Enamel 

Cloisonne 

The  name  cloisonne  is  the  one  we  know  best  because 
so  many  beautiful  pieces  come  to  us  from  Japan  and 
China,  but  cloisonne  enamel  was  known  in  Eastern  Eu- 
rope fifteen  hundred  years  ago. 

According  to  one  story,  an  early  queen  of  the  By- 
zantine kingdom  brought  enamelers  with  her  from  the 
East,  but  the  Greeks  and  Romans  also  made  cloisonne 
enamels. 


ENAMEL  IN  JEWELRY 


lOI 


Cloisonne  is  named  from  "  cloisson,"  which  means  a 
wall.  Enamel  is  melted  glass  poured  on  metal,  and 
hardened  in  the  fire.  But  the  goldsmiths  who  invented 
cloisonne  found  that  the  paste  would  not  remain  evenly 
spread  on  the  surface  but  would  become  thicker  in  some 
places  and  different  colors  would  run  together.  There- 
fore, gold  wire  is  soldered  on  the  surface  of  the  metal 
first  and  then  the  enamel  is  poured  into  the  little  cells 
which  have  been  made.  The  wire  walls  hold  the  glass 
in  place  until  it  is  fired.  Sometimes  a  piece  has  twenty 
layers  of  thin  glass  and  needs  to  be  fired  twenty  times. 
Then,  when  the  glass  is  even  with  the  top  of  the  wire, 
the  surface  is  polished  and  only  shows  the  fine  lines  of 
gold  running  through  the  color. 

Champleve 

Champleve  is  made  in  a  different  way.  Instead  of 
soldering  wires  on  top  of  the  metal,  the  jeweler  digs 
out  troughs  in  it  and  thus  makes  the  hollows  into  which 
the  glass  is  poured. 

Cloisonne  is  a  goldsmith's  method  because  gold  is 
not  only  too  precious  to  be  wasted  but  it  is  a  very  soft 
metal  and  easy  to  handle.  Champleve  was  invented  by 
men  who  worked  in  copper  and  bronze.  They  could 
use  thicker  pieces  and  did  not  object  to  losing  a  part  of 
the  metal. 

Champleve  is  sometimes  used  for  gold  and  silver. 


102 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


especially  in  India,  but  it  is  more  often  used  for  copper 
and  bronze.  Craftsman  jewelry  is  usually  champleve 
or  repousse. 

Repousse 

Repousse  enamel  is  made  by  beating  up  the  ground 
and  filling  in  certain  hollows  with  enamel.  In  both 
champleve  and  repousse  the  metal  may  be  seen  in 
broader  surfaces  than  in  cloisonne.  The  jeweled 
brooches  in  beaten  copper  and  aluminum  in  Figure  5 
illustrate  different  forms  of  champleve  and  repousse 
enamel  work,  showing  the  broad  surfaces  of  metal. 

Baisse  Taille 

Baisse  taille  is  a  translucent  enamel  on  a  ground 
which  has  been  chased  or  engraved  in  patterns  which 
can  be  faintly  seen  through  the  color.  Sometimes  the 
uneven  lower  surface  allows  the  enamel  to  be  heavier 
in  certain  places  which  gives  it  a  deeper  color  and  a 
shaded  effect. 

Plique  a  Jour 

Plique  a  Jour  is  like  a  screen  of  metal  with  enamel 
in  the  spaces.  It  may  be  compared  to  a  stained  glass 
window  as  the  enamel  is  held  by  the  metal  just  as 
panes  of  stained  glass  are  held  by  the  leads.  It  is 
often  called  Russian  enamel  because  it  has  been  used 
so  much  in  that  country.    It  is  like  the  open  setting  of 


.'^*  i  'r . 


Courtesy  of  International  Studio 
A  and  B— Beaten  Copper.  C  and  D— Beaten  Aluminum 

Figure  5.     Jeweled  Brooches 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


102 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


especially  in  India,  but  it  is  more  often  used  for  copper 
and  bronze.  Craftsman  jewelry  is  usually  champleve 
or  repousse. 

Repousse 

Repousse  enamel  is  made  by  beating  up  the  ground 
and  filling  in  certain  hollows  with  enamel.  In  both 
champleve  and  repousse  the  metal  may  be  seen  in 
broader  surfaces  than  in  cloisonne.  The  jeweled 
brooches  in  beaten  copper  and  aluminum  in  Figure  5 
illustrate  different  forms  of  champleve  and  repousse 
enamel  work,  showing  the  broad  surfaces  of  metal. 

Baisse  Taille 

Baisse  taille  is  a  translucent  enamel  on  a  ground 
which  has  been  chased  or  engraved  in  patterns  which 
can  be  faintly  seen  through  the  color.  Sometimes  the 
uneven  lower  surface  allows  the  enamel  to  be  heavier 
in  certain  places  which  gives  it  a  deeper  color  and  a 
shaded  effect. 

Plique  a  Jour 

Plique  a  Jour  is  like  a  screen  of  metal  with  enamel 
in  the  spaces.  It  may  be  compared  to  a  stained  glass 
window  as  the  enamel  is  held  by  the  metal  just  as 
panes  of  stained  glass  are  held  by  the  leads.  It  is 
often  called  Russian  enamel  because  it  has  been  used 
so  much  in  that  country.     It  is  like  the  open  setting  of 


\jMie-y' tShCfUfv^it      '    .v\m»^ 


Courtesy  of  International  Studio 
A  and  B— Beaten  Copper.  C  and  D— Beaten  Aluminum 

Figure  5.     Jeweled  Brooches 


ENAMEL  IN  JEWELRY 


103 


stones  and,  with  the  Russian  wire  enamel,  made  of 
twisted  filigree  wire,  may  have  been  brought  from 
Persia  as  a  substitute  for  the  glass  imitations  of  jewels. 

Encrusted  Enamel 

Encrusted  enamel  is  a  fused  glass  coating  on  a 
raised  pattern.  Sometimes  the  enamel  covers  the  en- 
tire surface  and  sometimes  appears  in  drops  or  beads 
producing  a  jeweled  effect. 

Painted  Enamel 

Painted  enamel  reached  perfection  in  France  in  the 
city  of  Limoges  where  there  were  in  the  fifteenth  and 
sixtenth  centuries  great  factories  for  the  making  of 
enamels  of  many  kinds.  The  most  famous  of  these 
were  those  painted  "en  grisaille,"  or  gray  produced 
by  painting  many  layers  of  white  on  a  dark  back- 
ground, the  shading  being  produced  by  the  various  de- 
grees of  thickness  of  the  color  and  by  black  lines  or 
hatchings.  Blue  and  green  were  used  for  the  back- 
ground as  well  as  black.  This  kind  of  enameling  is 
not  much  used  today  as  people  care  more  for  rich 
warm  tones. 

Enamel  Colors 

Enamel  may  be  either  opaque  or  translucent.  Gold 
IS  the  best  background  for  translucent  enamels  as  its 
brightness  shines  through  and  enriches  them.     Silver, 


I04 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


however,  is  often  used  and  sometimes  copper,  brass, 
or  alloys  of  gold  and  silver. 

Opaque  color  may  be  enameled  on  any  metal  which 
can  stand  the  heat  of  firing. 

The  color  of  the  glass  is  due  to  metallic  oxides,  some 
of  which  leave  the  glass  quite  clear  and  others  destroy 
its  transparency.  Different  colors  are  produced  not 
only  by  the  kind  of  oxide  but  also  by  the  degree  of 
heat  applied.  Different  enamels  require  different  de- 
grees of  heat  and  the  hardest  must  be  fired  first.  There 
is  always  a  risk  in  firing.  The  artist  can  never  be 
quite  sure  that  some  accident  will  not  spoil  his  work. 

Transparent  Colors 

The  transparent  colors  are  produced  as  follows : 

Sapphire-blue  by  cobalt 

Turquoise-blue  by  copper  with  soda  base 

Emerald-green  by  copper 

Brownish-green  by  iron 

Ruby-red  by  copper  protoxide 

Rose-pink  by  gold  and  tin 

Pale-yellow  by  silver 

Brownish-yellow  by  iron 

Purple  by  manganese 

Black  by  mixture 

Opaque  Colors 

For  opaque  colors  iron  is  used  for  red;  antimony, 
lead,  and  iron  for  yellow;  chromium  for  green;  and 
oxide  of  iron  for  white. 


ENAMEL  IN  JEWELRY 


105 


History 

The  first  use  of  enamel  was  probably  to  take  the 
place  of  precious  stones  or  of  colored  glass  in  imitation 
of  stones.  The  Hungarian  and  Russian  enamels  still 
show  by  their  size,  shape,  and  variety  of  colors  that  this 
was  their  original  purpose. 

The  Egyptians  did  not  make  true  enamels  but  they 
used  colored  glass  inserted  in  gold  and  stone.  The 
Greeks  soldered  designs  in  gold  wire  on  their  jewelry 
and  vases  and  afterwards  filled  the  hollows  with 
enamel. 

Germany  and  France  have  done  enameling  for  many 
centuries  as  well  as  the  countries  farther  east.  Cham- 
pleve  is  said  by  some  to  have  originated  in  Ireland 
where  many  arts  were  practiced  during  the  early  Chris- 
tian centuries.  Limoges,  France,  was  the  most  cele- 
brated center  for  enamels. 

Modern  enamels  could  be  as  beautiful  as  the  older 
ones  but  workmen  are  not  so  willing  to  devote  the 
length  of  time  necessary  to  make  their  work  perfect. 


*1. 


Chapter  XV 
DESIGN  IN  JEWELRY 

Importance  of  Design  in  Jewelry 

Design  is  becoming  an  increasingly  important  mat- 
ter in  the  making  and  choosing  of  jewelry.  The  time 
has  passed  when  a  quantity  of  showy  stones  crowded 
together  without  thought  of  design  or  arrangement  can 
be  considered  beautiful. 

Jewelers  are  returning  to  the  older  styles  of  gold- 
smith's work  in  which  precious  stones  or  enamel  be- 
come a  part  of  a  beautiful  pattern. 

Some  manufacturing  jewelers  make  a  specialty  of  re- 
setting the  stones  from  jewelry  made  a  few  years  ago, 
when  designs  were  heavy  and  meaningless.  One 
jeweler^s  catalogue  says:  "Never  before  has  Dame 
Fashion  been  so  exacting  in  her  demands  that  jewelry 
shall  possess  true  artistic  merit  as  well  as  commercial 
value." 

Relation  of  Design  to  Material  and  Purpose 
The  jewelry  designer  must  consider  three  things : 

1.  His  material. 

2.  The  use  of  the  article. 

io6 


DESIGN  IN  JEWELRY 


107 


3.  Beauty  of  form  and  workmanship. 

Designs  in  metal  differ  from  those  in  stone  or  wood 
or  cloth  because  metal  must  be  handled  in  a  special  way 
and  also  because  metal  has  peculiar  beauties  which 
should  be  brought  out  by  the  design. 

The  color  of  the  precious  metals,  their  lustrous  sur- 
face, the  forms  which  they  take  when  melted  or  drawn 
out  into  wire,  are  all  important  to  the  designer. 

The  use  to  which  the  article  is  to  be  put  also  affects 
the  design.  Designs  for  pendants  should  be  different 
from  those  for  rings  and  long  chains  are  not  made  after 
the  same  patterns  as  necklaces. 

Those  who  are  constantly  handling  jewelry  will  find 
it  fascinating  to  study  different  types  of  design  and  to 
discover  for  themselves  why  some  pieces  seem  to  grow 
more  beautiful  as  they  are  better  known,  while  others 
which  at  first  seemed  attractive  after  a  while  become 
tiresome  and  tawdry.  They  will  sometimes  find  that 
the  design  is  inappropriate  for  its  use ;  sometimes  that 
it  is  badly  balanced  or  sprawling  or  heavy  instead  of 
light,  graceful,  and  beautifully  proportioned. 

Platinum,  gold,  and  silver  are  all  dense,  or  fine 
grained.  All  are  soft.  Gold  and  silver  melt  at  a 
moderate  temperature  but  platinum  requires  intense 
heat.  One  may,  therefore,  see  wire  or  filigree  jewelry 
in  all  these  metals,  but  grains  are  only  found  in  the  gold 
and  silver. 


io8 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Some  of  the  greatest  goldsmiths  in  the  world  have 
built  up  their  designs  from  wire  and  rings  and  the 
round  or  flattened  grains,  which  seem  to  form  them- 
selves into  beautiful  patterns  almost  without  effort. 
Jewelers  make  "  units  of  design  "  by  cutting  wire  into 
small  pieces  and  bending  them  into  fancy  shapes.  One 
designer  ^  gives  700  different  forms  which  can  be  made 
from  pieces  of  wire  an  inch  long.  These  tiny  pieces 
can  be  combined  in  chains  or  shaped  into  ornaments  to 
form  rhythmic  patterns  more  easily  than  they  could  be 
drawn  on  paper. 

Filigree  jewelry  is  like  lace  work,  yet  the  tiny  wires 
are  not  quite  like  threads  of  lace.  Their  stiffness  sug- 
gests a  different  kind  of  material  and  their  luster  gives 
an  added  beauty. 

The  color  and  luster  of  metals  add  greatly  to  the  va- 
riety and  beauty  of  design.  Polished  surfaces  reflect 
white  or  colored  light  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  not 
only  brightness  but  different  tones  of  color  in  the  dif- 
ferent planes  of  surface.  The  deeper,  concave  parts 
of  gold  ornaments  look  redder  than  the  convex  parts. 
One  of  the  greatest  charms  of  wire  or  filigree  orna- 
ments is  the  play  of  light  on  the  fine  twists  and  coils. 

Modeling,  casting,  and  chasing  also  give  this  variety 
of  color  and  brightness  and,  if  finely  finished,  the  work 
seems  to  need  no  further  decoration. 

iR.  L.  B.  Rathbone. 


DESIGN  IN  JEWELRY 


109 


Use  of  Gems  in  Design 

Precious  stones  or  enamel,  however,  usually  com- 
plete the  ornament.  They  can  be  used  vulgarly,  that 
is,  without  any  thought  except  to  display  the  size  of 
the  stone,  or  their  beauty  may  be  increased  many  times 
by  art  in  cutting  and  setting.  An  irregular  or  imper- 
fect stone  which  forms  part  of  an  artistic  design  is  far 
more  beautiful  than  a  perfectly  regular  stone  in  a  set- 
ting which  has  no  character.  Figures  2  and  3  illus- 
trate good  and  poor  use  of  precious  stones  in  a  design. 

Sometimes  individual  stones  are  so  large  and  so 
beautiful  that  the  jeweler  fears  to  add  anything  in  the 
way  of  goldsmith's  work  but  even  such  splendid  gems 
will  shine  more  brilliantly  against  a  background  of  ap- 
propriate enamel,  chasing,  or  modeling  which  give 
depth,  contrast,  and  variety.  In  this  case  the  color  and 
design  of  the  background  should  lead  up  to  the  princi- 
pal feature  and  not  away  from  it. 

A  diamond  should  not  be  surrotmded  by  brightly 
colored  stones  as  their  color  distracts  attention.  It 
may  be  most  effectively  displayed  against  dark  blue 
enamel  or  black  onyx  as  the  dark,  retreating  colors  give 
it  depth  and  contrast.  Platinum  forms  a  more  beauti- 
ful backgroimd  for  diamonds  than  gold  because  its 
bluish-white  brilliancy  reflects  and  increases  the  same 
characteristic  in  the  stone. 

Nearly  all  colored  stones  gain  in  beauty  by  being  sur- 


no 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


rounded  by  diamonds,  because  the  clear,  white  stones 
do  not  call  attention  from  the  colored  ones  but  appar- 
ently add  to  their  luster.  Sapphire  and  pearl  jewelry 
is  particularly  rich  in  effect  because  of  the  contrast  be- 
tween the  rich  blue  and  the  pearl-white. 

Form  and  Line  in  Design 

The  one  feature  of  design  which  is  most  important 
yet  least  understood  by  the  makers  of  our  commercial 
jewelry  is  beauty  of  form  and  line  in  the  construction 
of  ornaments. 

A  straight  line  is  the  simplest  form  but  the  hardest 
to  make  beautiful.  Bar  pins  may  be  artistic  because 
they  have  beautiful  detail  in  the  decoration,  but  many 
of  them  are  simply  stupid  even  if  they  are  set  with  a 
row  of  fine  stones. 

Curves 

Curving  lines  are  more  graceful,  but  they  may  be 
sprawling  and  not  restful.  L'Art  Nouveau  jewelry 
often  has  beautiful  lines  and  forms  in  it  but  the  gen- 
eral impression  is  not  satisfactory.  It  lacks  dignity 
because  it  seems  to  wander  without  a  proper  sense  of 
balance  and  restraint. 

The  Foundation  of  Good  Design 

Good  design  must  first  be  built  on  a  well-proportioned 
geometrical  figure  as  a  foundation.     The  lines  of  this 


DESIGN  IN  JEWELRY 


III 


figure  may  not  show  but  they  must  be  in  the  artist's 
mind.  Even  the  bar  pin,  if  it  is  designed  at  all,  must 
be  treated  not  as  a  simple  line  but  as  a  narrow  rect- 
angle. 

The  most  common  figures  are  the  circle,  square,  ob- 
long, diamond,  and  ellipse,  all  of  which  may  have  ir- 
regular edges  or  be  bent  in  such  a  way  as  to  suggest 
a  variety  of  shapes.  Heart  shapes  are  only  modified 
triangles  and  crosses  are  made  of  two  oblongs. 
Flower  designs  and  scroll  patterns,  properly  propor- 
tioned, will  be  seen  to  fit  into  a  geometrical  framework, 
and  even  horseshoes  and  wish-bones,  which  are  happily 
less  common  than  they  used  to  be,  owe  their  attraction 
to  their  graceful  elliptical  shapes  rather  than  to  their 
suggestions  of  horses  or  chickens. 

The  French  comb  shown  in  the  Frontispiece  is  an 
example  of  perfection  of  balance  in  a  design.  The 
geometrical  figure  upon  which  the  design  is  built  is  an 
equal-sided  triangle.  However,  the  graceful  curves  do 
not  follow  the  line  so  closely  as  to  seem  stiff.  This 
comb  also  illustrates  the  effective  use  of  gems  in  com- 
pleting a  design. 

Pendants  are  more  graceful  when  the  length  is 
greater  than  the  width.  Pear  shapes,  which  are  ellipses 
drawn  out  to  a  point,  as  well  as  crosses  and  dropping 
ornaments  which  give  a  long  pointed  effect,  are  beau- 
tiful when  they  emphasize  the  fact  that  they  are  hang- 


112 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


ing*  ornaments.  The  elongated  shape  is  better  for 
scarf-pins  because  it  suggests  vertical  lines  which  cor- 
respond with  the  general  lines  of  the  tie. 

Brooches  and  rings  with  a  markedly  pointed  effect 
are  less  satisfactory.  The  abnormally  long  marquise 
rings  worn  a  few  years  ago  looked  badly  proportioned 
and  uncomfortable.  For  both  brooches  and  rings, 
radiating  designs  are  best,  although  designs  moving 
around  the  border  are  also  good. 

Types  of  Decoration 

The  motives  or  elements  of  decorative  design  may  be 
either  natural,  conventional,  or  abstract. 

Natural  designs  imitate  nature  as  much  as  the  ma- 
terial will  permit. 

Conventional  designs  suggest  nature  but  are  simpli- 
fied and  adapted  to  the  purpose  of  the  ornament  or  the 
pattern. 

Abstract  designs  are  made  up  of  repeated  lines  and 
patterns  which  have  no  intentional  resemblance  to  nat- 
ural forms,  though  sometimes  it  is  hard  to  draw  a 
clear  line  between  very  much  conventionalized  nature 
and  abstract  patterns. 

Natural  designs  in  jewelry  are  such  ornaments  as 
coral  roses,  ivory  jewelry  tinted  in  the  natural  colors, 
or  flowers,  birds,  and  insects  enameled  to  imitate  na- 
ture. Such  jewelry,  however,  is  usually  of  the  novelty 
type. 


DESIGN  IN  JEWELRY 


"3 


Fine  jewelry  is  more  or  less  conventionalized  even 
when  it  suggests  nature.  There  is  something  a  little 
bizarre  in  trying  to  represent  so  fragile  a  thing  as  a 
flower  in  hard  metal  and  stone.  The  designer  there- 
fore makes  his  rose  or  butterfly  exquisite  in  its  own 
way  but  does  not  try  to  change  the  character  of  his 
material.  Figure  6  is  an  example  of  a  design  in  which 
the  flower  and  leaf  forms  have  been  well-adapted  to 
the  material. 

He  must  know  his  plant  well  in  order  to  simplify  it 
without  losing  all  its  character.  Too  often  the  reason 
that  designs  suggest  no  definite  flower  or  leaf  is  that 
the  artist  has  not  studied  the  one  he  wishes  to  represent 
in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  out  its  characteristics. 

Elements  of  a  Design 

Pattern  designs  are  made  up  of  lines,  forms,  and 

spaces. 

1.  There  must  be  a  center  of  interest.  In  jewelry 
this  may  be  a  precious  stone  or  some  feature  of  the 
workmanship. 

2.  The  pattern  should  be  well-distributed  and  have 
proper  balance.  One  side,  for  instance,  should  not 
seem  too  heavy  for  the  other.  It  should  follow  the 
shape  of  the  ornament. 

3.  The  parts  of  the  design  must  harmonize  and  be 
well  bound  together.     It  should  not  be  too  much  broken 


114 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


up,  and  if  the  ornament  has  several  sections  some 
feature  of  the  design  should  cross  from  one  to  the 
other.  Designs  may  radiate  from  the  center  outward 
or  from  the  rim  toward  the  center.  They  may  move 
around  the  border  —  with  attention  on  the  outer  edge, 
with  attention  on  the  inner  edge,  or  with  attention 
equally  divided. 

The  kinds  of  lines  to  be  used  depend  on  the  use  and 
shape  of  the  ornament  as  well  as  on  its  material.  Fili- 
gree and  enamel  work  have  fine  traceries,  while  modeled 
or  carved  work,  cameos  or  intaglios,  have  bolder  out- 
lines. Straight  lines  steady  a  design  while  curving 
lines  give  it  grace  and  lightness.  Formality  adds  dig- 
nity to  design. 

Design  in  Different  Countries  ^ 

Masters  of  decorative  design  were  found  in  the  East 
—  in  Persia,  Syria,  India,  and  Damascus.  The  artists 
of  the  Far  East  have  been  careful  followers  of  tradi- 
tion and  have  rigidly  obeyed  the  rules  of  art  as  they 
were  worked  out  by  earlier  craftsmen.  Their  lines 
are  smooth  and  flowing  and  their  details  perfect. 

Japanese  art  is  very  naturalistic  and  often  rugged. 
The  older  art  is  wonderfully  beautiful  as  the  Japanese 
are  most  keenly  alive  to  the  subtle  beauty  of  natural 
forms.  They  represent  in  art  fine  differences  in  tex- 
ture and  in  form  which  other  people  have  not  noticed. 


Courtesy  of  International  Studio 

Figure  6.     Necklace  and  Earrings  of  Brilliants  (Austrian  Design) 


INTENTIONAL     SECOND  EXPOSURE 


114 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


up,  and  if  the  ornament  has  several  sections  some 
feature  of  the  design  should  cross  from  one  to  the 
other.  Designs  may  radiate  from  the  center  outward 
or  from  the  rim  toward  the  center.  They  may  move 
around  the  border  —  with  attention  on  the  outer  edge, 
with  attention  on  the  inner  edge,  or  with  attention 
equally  divided. 

The  kinds  of  lines  to  be  used  depend  on  the  use  and 
shape  of  the  ornament  as  well  as  on  its  material.  Fili- 
gree and  enamel  work  have  fine  traceries,  while  modeled 
or  carved  work,  cameos  or  intaglios,  have  bolder  out- 
lines. Straight  lines  steady  a  design  while  curving 
lines  give  it  grace  and  lightness.  Formality  adds  dig- 
nity to  design. 

Design  in  Different  Countries 

Masters  of  decorative  design  were  found  in  the  East 
—  in  Persia,  Syria,  India,  and  Damascus.  The  artists 
of  the  Far  East  have  been  careful  followers  of  tradi- 
tion and  have  rigidly  obeyed  the  rules  of  art  as  they 
were  worked  out  by  earlier  craftsmen.  Their  lines 
are  smooth  and  flowing  and  their  details  perfect. 

Japanese  art  is  very  naturalistic  and  often  rugged. 
The  older  art  is  wonderfully  beautiful  as  the  Japanese 
are  most  keenly  alive  to  the  subtle  beauty  of  natural 
forms.  They  represent  in  art  fine  differences  in  tex- 
ture and  in  form  which  other  people  have  not  noticed. 


Courtesy  of  International  Studio 

Figure  6.     Necklace  and  Earrings  of  Brilliants  (Austrian  Design) 


ill 


DESIGN  IN  JEWELRY 


115 


Chinese  art  is  more  conventional.  The  designs  are 
more  purely  ornamental  and  not  so  close  to  nature. 
The  Chinese  have  not  allowed  their  art  to  be  cheapened 
to  suit  Western  demands  as  the  Japanese  have,  but 
both  these  countries  have  lost  something  characteristic. 

Of  Byzantine  design,  which  is  the  background  of 
Russian  and  Italian  jewelry,  Walter  Crane  says: 
"  Whether  in  building,  carving,  mosaic,  or  goldsmith's 
work,  it  impresses  one  with  a  certain  restraint  in  the 
midst  of  its  splendor ;  a  certain  controlling  dignity  and 
reserve  appears  to  be  expressed  even  in  the  use  of  the 
most  beautiful  materials  as  well  as  in  design  and  the 
treatment  of  form." 

Egyptian  art  is  being  revived  in  the  figures  of  the 
scarab  or  winged  beetle.  It  always  has  dignity  and 
orderly  simplicity. 

Benvenuto  Cellini  was  a  very  noted  Italian  gold- 
smith and  artist  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Writing 
of  the  Italian  designers  he  says :  "  In  Italy  we  have 
several  different  ways  of  designing  foliage :  the  Lom- 
bards, for  example,  construct  very  beautiful  patterns 
by  copying  the  leaves  of  briony  and  ivy  in  exquisite 
curves;  the  Tuscans  and  Romans  .  .  .  imitate  the 
leaves  of  the  acanthus  with  its  stalks  and  flowers  curl- 
ing in  divers  wavy  lines,  and  into  these  arabesques  one 
may  excellently  well  insert  the  figures  of  little  birds  and 
different  animals."    The  Italians  excel  in  mosaics  and 


ii6 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


cameo  cutting  as  the  French  have  always  excelled  in 
enamel  work. 

One  of  the  most  delightful  writers  on  jewelry  and 
jewelry-making  was  the  old  monk,  Theophilus,  who 
lived  in  the  eleventh  century.  He  told  designers  that 
they  must  be  very  humble  and  look  to  God  for  inspira- 
tion. This  chapter  may  well  close  with  his  quaint 
words:  "Whatsoever  thou  art  able  to  learn,  under- 
stand, or  devise  in  the  arts  is  administered  to  thee  by 
the  grace  of  the  sevenfold  spirit,  the  Spirit  of  Wisdom, 
the  Spirit  of  Understanding,  the  Spirit  of  Counsel,  the 
Spirit  of  Fortitude,  the  Spirit  of  Piety,  and  the  Spirit 
of  Fear  of  the  Lord." 


Part  IV — Articles  of  Jewelry 


Chapter  XVI 
STANDARD  ARTICLES 

Rings 

Rings  are  the  most  typical  and  common  forms  of 
ornamental  jewelry.  They  may  be  of  several  vari- 
eties : 

1.  A  cylindrical  band,  plain  like  a  wedding  ring,  or 

carved  and  set  with  stones  or  otherwise  orna- 
mented. 

2.  The  upper  side  broadened  for  ornament,  usually 

with  stones. 

3.  Spiral  or  serpentine  form  with  several  coils. 

4.  Signet  ring. 

5.  Open  on  one  side. 

Wedding  rings  are  sometimes  cut  from  a  bar  of 
metal  in  order  that  they  may  be  equally  strong  at  every 
point.  Other  simple  band  rings  are  made  by  soldering 
the  ends  of  wire  together. 

The  broad  top  type  may  be  made  by  flattening  the 

117 


if 


ii8 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


band  or  soldering  on  another  piece.  Gem  settings  are 
usually  put  on  in  this  way. 

When  open  on  one  side,  the  ends  of  the  wire  are 
carved  in  ornamental  shapes.  Spiral  rings  are  coiled 
wire. 

A  cheaper  method  of  making  rings  is  to  stamp  the 
metal  with  a  die  or  to  melt  it  and  run  it  into  molds. 

Rings  for  men  are  heavier  than  those  for  women 
and  when  set  with  gems  and  stones  are  usually  set 
lower,  sometimes  having  the  top  of  the  stone  little 
above  the  surrounding  metal.  Men's  rings  are  some- 
times encrusted  with  small  stones  forming  part  of  a 
design.  Signet  rings,  rings  bearing  the  emblems  of 
masonic  or  fraternal  orders,  and  class  rings  of  special 
design  are  more  common  than  those  worn  merely  for 
ornament. 

Pins 

The  pin  serves  a  useful  as  well  as  an  ornamental  pur- 
pose.    There  are  three  general  types ; 

1.  The  scarf  pin,  which  has  a  stem  pointed  at  one 

end  and  a  knob  or  ornament  at  the  other. 

2.  The  brooch  or  safety  pin,  which  has  two  parts. 

The  upper  part  is  of  various  shapes,  usually 
ornamented.  The  pin  is  attached  on  the  un- 
der side  by  a  hinge  or  spring  and  fits  into  a 
catch  or  sheath  at  the  other  end. 


STANDARD  ARTICLES 


119 


3.  Double  pins,  which  are  connected  by  chains. 

Scarf  pins  are  generally  made  of  round  gold  or 
silver  wire.  The  wire  may  be  steel  or  brass  plated 
with  gold  or  silver,  but  if  it  is  solid,  the  head  or  orna- 
mental top  may  be  shaped  from  the  end  of  the  wire. 
Usually  the  top  is  soldered  on.  The  shape  of  the  top 
is  more  often  rounded  or  conical  than  flat. 

Brooches  and  bar  pins  may  be  round,  oval,  oblong 
discs  or  various  fanciful  shapes.  Pins  for  lingerie  or 
collars  are  simple  in  shape  and  design,  but  brooches 
offer  an  unlimited  field  for  decoration  with  goldsmiths* 
work,  gems,  or  enamel. 

Pins  were  used  in  ancient  times  in  place  of  buttons 
for  holding  the  folds  of  garments  together  and  re- 
sembled buttons  in  shape. 

Hairpins  are  split  into  two  prongs.  Those  found 
in  the  Jewelry  Department  may  be  of  tortoise  shell, 
perhaps  carved  and  ornamented,  or  of  horn  or  shell 
with  gold,  silver,  or  jeweled  tops. 

Chains 

Chains  are  of  two  general  types : 

1.  Chains  made  of  finely  twisted  or  plaited  wires. 

2.  Chains  made  of  links,  balls,  or  small  pieces 

joined  together. 

Twisted  and  plaited  chains  are  made  flexible  by  the 
twist  of  the  wire  which  acts  as  a  spring. 


^ 


120 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Link  chains  have  pieces  or  sections  in  endless  variety. 
The  principal  ones  are : 

1.  The  cable  link,  an  ordinary  oval  or  round  ring. 

2.  The  curb  link,  the  cable  link  twisted.     An  open 

curb  has  the  sides  pushed  slightly  together. 
A  close  curb  has  the  sides  pushed  close  to- 
gether.    Trace  links  have  the  curb  elongated. 

These  may  be  modified  or  ornamented  by  hammer- 
ing or  chasing. 

Fancy  chains  are  made  with  bent,  coiled,  and  twisted 
pieces  of  wire  made  into  small  patterns  and  connected 
by  rings.  Ball  or  bead  chains  are  also  made  by  string- 
ing perforated  balls  on  a  flexible  wire. 

There  are  three  types  of  men's  watch  chains. 

In  one  type  the  chain  is  worn  across  the  vest,  be- 
tween the  two  pockets.  On  one  end  there  is  a  swivel 
for  the  watch,  and  on  the  other  a  spring  ring  for  a 
knife,  cigar  cutter,  etc.     This  is  a  very  popular  style. 

Another  type  also  has  a  swivel  on  one  end  and  a 
spring  ring  on  the  other,  but  in  the  center  of  the  chain 
there  is  a  bar  for  holding  the  chain  in  the  vest  button- 
hole, and  a  drop  chain  for  a  charm. 

The  third  style  goes  to  one  pocket  only  and  has  a 
bar  for  attaching  to  the  vest  buttonhole  and  the  drop 
chain  for  the  charm. 

The  links  or  sections  of  ordinary  chains  are  made 


STANDARD  ARTICLES 


121 


and  put  together  by  machinery  but  hand-made  chains 
are  stronger  because  of  the  annealing  of  the  wire. 

Necklaces 

Necklaces  are  made  in  four  general  forms : 

1.  The  close  fitting  collar-like  band  made  of  numer- 

ous stones,  beads,  filigree,  or  ornamental  tab- 
lets. 

2.  The  chain  with  single  pendant  as  the  lavaliere. 

3.  A  row  of  beads,  usually  graduated  in  size,  on  a 

wire  or  chain.  The  beads  may  be  of  stones, 
as  pearls,  amethysts,  amber,  coral,  or  of  plain 
or  filigree  gold.  (For  beads,  see  Chapter 
XVIL) 

4.  Several  chains  or  strings  of  different  lengths 

worn  one  above  the  other. 

The  pearls  used  for  pearl  necklaces  may  be  large  or 
small  and  may  be  either  graduated  or  of  equal  size. 
The  clasps  may  be  studded  with  diamonds  or  other 
precious  stones,  but  otherwise  the  pearl  necklace  is  an 
example  of  perfect  simplicity.  The  gems  are  pierced 
and  strung  on  a  wire  or  cord  without  pendants  or 
ornamental  treatment  of  any  kind.  Chains  for  lorg- 
nettes or  fans  which  are  made  of  seed  pearls  may  have 
small  diamonds  or  other  stones  set  between. 

Unless  made  of  pearls  or  ornamental  beads,  neck- 
laces almost  always  have  pendants.     The  chain  is  often 


122 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


very  light  and  simple ;  all  the  attention  is  directed  to 
the  pendant  or  row  of  pendants. 

Clasps  for  necklaces  are  either  spring  rings  or  bar- 
rel clasps. 

Pendants 

Pendants  may  be  suspended  from  any  kind  of  chain 
or  ornament,  but  are  most  used  for  necklaces.  There 
are  many  kinds,  among  them : 

1.  The  locket  to  hold  a  picture. 

2.  The  miniature. 

3.  The  cross  or  medallion. 

4.  Single  gems  or  cameos. 

5.  Lavaliere  ornaments. 

This  list  does  not  exhaust  the  possibilities  of  the 
pendant  as  it  is  the  thing  upon  which  the  goldsmith 
may  use  his  greatest  skill. 

The  locket  may  be  plain  or  ornamented  with  precious 
stones  or  enamel.  It  may  have  but  one  piece  or  be 
made  in  two  parts  hinged  and  clasped  together. 

The  miniature  is  painted  on  ivory  or  porcelain  and 
usually  set  with  small  brilliants  which  make  it  very 
ornamental. 

The  cross  is  a  favorite  form  of  pendant,  although  its 
religious  meaning  is  often  forgotten  in  the  ornamen- 
tation and  the  gems  with  which  it  is  set.     Medallions 


STANDARD  ARTICLES 


123 


or  other  more  massive  pendants  are  ornamented  with 
enamel,  gems,  or  pearls. 

Single  gems  or  cameos  form  beautiful  pendants  when 
hung  on  slender  chains. 

Lavaliere  ornaments  which  are  named  for  a  famous 
French  beauty,  are  the  most  popular  form  of  pendants 
at  this  time.  They  are  made  of  very  delicate  filigree 
work  of  beautiful  design  and  set  with  precious  stones. 
The  lavaliere  pendant  is  an  effort  on  the  part  of  jew- 
elers to  make  the  goldsmith's  work  contribute  to  the 
beauty  of  the  stones  instead  of  merely  forming  a 
background. 

Necklaces  and  pendants  are  most  popular  when  fash- 
ion decrees  the  open  neck  style  of  dress,  which  re- 
quires some  little  ornament  at  the  neck. 

Bracelets 

Bracelets  are  rings  worn  on  the  arm.     They  may  be : 

1.  Closed  rings  or  bands. 

2.  Open  on  one  side. 

3.  Spiral  coils. 

4.  Hinged  and  closed  with  a  clasp. 

5.  Flexible  bands  made  of  links. 

The  simplest  form  is  the  closed  ring  which  is  made 
of  wire  or  tubing  drawn  through  a  draw  plate  to  the 
desired  size.  After  annealing  it  is  bent  into  shape  and 
the  ends  soldered  together. 


124 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


The  open  bracelet  is  made  in  the  same  way  but  the 
ends  are  finished  and  ornamented  instead  of  being 
soldered  together. 

Spiral  coils  are  also  made  of  wire  and  are  usually 
finished  with  a  serpent's  head. 

Hinged  bracelets  are  usually  made  of  tubing  though 
they  may  also  be  solid.  They  are  made  in  two  pieces 
connected  with  a  hinge  at  one  side  and  with  a  hook  or 
clasp  at  the  other. 

Flexible  bracelets  are  made  of  links  or  tablets  so  con- 
nected that  they  may  be  bent  at  each  joint.  The  flex- 
ible bracelets  made  for  wrist  watches  have  springs  in 
each  of  the  sections  so  that  they  may  be  pulled  apart 
when  drawn  over  the  hand. 

Bracelet  makers  buy  the  wire  tubing  already  drawn 
and  then  cut,  join,  and  design  the  bracelet  as  they  wish. 

Earrings 

Earrings  are  ornaments  for  the  ears.  They  are  of 
two  kinds: 

1.  Ornaments  which  are  set  against  the  lobe  of  the 

ear. 

2.  Hanging  drops  or  pendants. 

The  use  of  earrings  was  formerly  supposed  to  re- 
quire the  piercing  of  the  ears  and  as  this  was  consid- 
ered a  barbarous  custom,  earrings  went  out  of  fashion, 
but  at  present,  by  means  of  a  fine  screw  at  the  back  of 


STANDARD  ARTICLES 


123 


the  ring  they  are  quite  secure  and  therefore  the  fashion 

has  revived. 

The  favorite  form  for  the  ornament  set  closely 
against  the  ear  is  the  single  large  pearl,  either  real  or 
artificial.  Pendant  earrings  have  a  tendency  to  be 
long  and  rather  oriental  in  effect 

Collar  Buttons 

Collar  buttons  diflfer  in  the  length  of  post  and  shape 
and  size  of  the  head.  "^ 

For  the  front  of  the  collar  a  longer  post  is  required 
than  for  the  back. 

The  head  may  be  ball-shaped,  dome-shaped,  or 
elongated.  The  latter  type  is  very  useful  in  holding 
the  necktie  in  place  in  the  back. 

The  buttons  made  in  one  piece  are  very  strong.  The 
soldered  ones  are  more  liable  to  break. 

CufiF-Links 

CufT-links  are  of  two  varieties : 

Stiff  bar  buttons  have  ends  of  unequal  size,  con- 
nected by  a  stiff  bar.  The  end  which  does  not  show 
is  usually  bean-shaped  to  enable  it  to  be  inserted  easily. 
These  are  very  strong,  especially  suitable  for  use  in 

stiff  cuffs. 

Loose  links,  with  the  two  ends  alike,  are  joined  by 
flexible  connections.  These  may  be  worn  in  all  styles 
of  cuffs,  and  are  especially  desirable  for  the  soft  styles. 


126 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Cuff-links  for  evening  wear  are  of  mother-of-pearl, 
either  all  pearl,  or  with  a  tiny  rim  of  platinum  or  gold. 

Studs  and  Vest  Buttons 

Studs  are  of  two  varieties : 

Rigid,  like  small  collar  buttons,  the  backs  being 
smaller  and  the  posts  shorter  than  in  the  regu- 
lar collar  button. 

Flexible,  small  balls  of  gold  or  mother-of-pearl 
mounted  on  an  adjustable  back. 

Vest  buttons  made  of  mother-of-pearl  for  wear  in 
white  vests  are  mounted  on  adjustable  backs. 

Evening  Sets  for  Men 

Evening  sets  for  men  are  made  of  mother-of-pearl 
and  consist  of  either  studs  and  links,  or  studs,  links, 
and  vest  buttons. 

Other  Articles 

Many  other  little  articles  are  found  in  the  Jewelry 
Department  which  are  affected  by  changing  fashions. 

Buckles  and  clasps  for  belts  and  metal  girdles  are 
made  of  gold  and  silver  and  often  beautifully  carved 
and  ornamented  with  precious  stones  or  enamel. 

Smelling  bottles,  powder  boxes,  chatelaines  for  hold- 
ing a  number  of  small  articles,  and  other  trifles  are 
always  subjects  of  interest. 


Chapter  XVII 
CRAFTSMAN  JEWELRY 

Hand-Made  Jewelry 

Hand-made  jewelry  and  metal  work  has  been  re- 
vived as  an  artistic  craft  and  has  been  steadily  gaining 
in  commercial  importance.  There  is  no  attempt  to 
compete  with  factory-made  articles  in  mechanical  per- 
fection. The  workmanship  is  often  intentionally 
rough  in  order  to  show  that  it  is  a  handmade  product. 
•  Jewelry  of  this  type  approaches  the  Egyptian, 
Moorish,  or  oriental  in  design  and  is  sometimes 
barbaric  but  always  individual  and  at  its  best  shows 
an  appreciation  of  the  possibilities  of  metal  work  and 
the  beauty  of  metal  forms  and  textures  which  no 
machine  products  can  even  suggest. 

Not  gold  or  platinum  but  silver,  copper,  brass, 
bronze,  German  silver,  and  aluminum  are  the  mediums 
for  art  metal  work.  (For  German  silver  see  "Leather 
Goods  Manual,"  for  aluminum  "House furnishings 
Manual") 

Copper  and  Its  Alloys 

Copper  has  not  the  beauty  of  gold  or  silver  but  it  is 

127 


128 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


associated  with  the  precious  metals  as  an  alloy  and  is 
also  the  most  important  element  in  brass  and  bronze. 
Copper  is  malleable  and  ductile,  but  tougher  and  harder 
than  gold  or  silver. 

Native  copper  exists  in  small  quantities  in  connec- 
tion with  copper  ores  but  it  is  so  easily  affected  by 
the  atmosphere  that  the  surface  is  always  dull  and 
tarnished.  There  are  nearly  two  hundred  distinct 
copper  ores  many  of  which  carry  small  amounts  of 
gold  and  silver. 

Sources  and  Extraction  of  Coppef 

Copper  has  been  mined  in  Germany,  England,  and 
Spain  as  well  as  in  Canada,  Mexico,  Australia,  and 
South  America  but  the  most  important  fields  are  in 
the  United  States.  The  Lake  Superior  and  Michigan 
mines  are  the  oldest  in  this  country,  but  the  produc- 
tion of  the  Montana  mine  field  is  now  the  largest  in 
the  world. 

The  metal  is  usually  extracted  from  the  ore  by  what 
is  called  the  "dry"  method.  The  ore  is  first  "roasted" 
in  heaps  out  of  doors  by  means  of  wood  which  is  so 
placed  that  when  it  is  lighted  it  sets  fire  to  the  sulphur 
in  the  ore.  The  reduced  ore  is  then  smelted  in  either 
a  furnace  or  a  Bessemer  converter. 

When  very  pure  copper  is  needed  or  when  the  ore 
contains  gold  or  silver,  the  electrolytic  method  is  em- 


i 


CRAFTSMAN  JEWELRY 


129 


ployed.  This  is  similar  to  electroplating.  A  plate  of 
impure  copper  is  attached  to  the  positive  pole  of  a 
dynamo  and  a  thin  sheet  of  copper  to  the  negative 
pole.  They  are  then  plunged  in  an  acid  which  causes 
an  electric  current  to  pass  from  the  first  piece,  called 
the  "anode,"  to  the  second,  or  "cathode."  The  copper 
of  the  anode  is  dissolved  and  deposited  on  the  cath- 
ode as  pure  copper,  while  the  gold,  silver,  and  other 
ingredients  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 

Brass 

Brass  is  one  of  the  most  important  alloys  of  copper. 
It  is  composed  of  varying  proportions  of  copper  and 
zinc  with  the  addition  of  small  amounts  of  tin, 
aluminum,  or  lead.  High  brass,  which  is  the  best  for 
etching  with  acid,  has  a  high  percentage  of  zinc,  con- 
sisting of  65  per  cent  copper  and  35  per  cent  zinc. 

Brass  for  ornaments  is  often  given  the  ormolu  finish 
which  makes  it  look  like  gold.  This  finish  is  secured 
by  dipping  the  brass  in  a  solution  of  nitric  acid,  hydro- 
fluoric acid,  and  zinc.  It  is  then  dried  and  coated  with 
lacquer  and  polished. 

Bronze 

Bronze  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin  with  small 
quantities  of  other  metals,  such  as  phosphorous,  lead, 
and  zinc.     The  bronze   for  vases  and  statuettes  is 


I30 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


87  per  cent  copper,  7  per  cent  tin,  3  per  cent  lead,  and 
3  per  cent  zinc.  Bronze  for  bells,  or  bell  metal,  is 
75  per  cent  copper  and  25  per  cent  tin.  The  Japanese 
make  two  bronze  alloys  for  their  art  work.  The  first 
is  copper  97  per  cent,  gold  3  per  cent,  and  the  second 
copper  75  per  cent,  silver  25  per  cent. 

Affect  of  Air  on  Copper  and  Its  Alloys 

When  copper  is  exposed  to  the  air  for  some  time 
it  will  combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  turn 
a  dark  brownish  color.  If  moisture  and  carbon  are 
in  the  air  it  will  turn  green.  This  film  of  color  is 
called  the  "patina.**  The  patina  can  be  given  arti- 
ficially to  both  copper  and  bronze.  There  is  no  other 
metal  which  takes  so  many  beautiful  colors  as  the 
result  of  its  combination  with  other  substances.  The 
patina  of  bronze  alloys  is  described  in  Chapter  XXVIII. 

Methods  of  Decoration 

Etching,  engraving,  chasing  or  repousse  work, 
piercing,  and  enameling  are  the  methods  by  which  the 
designs  for  craftman  jewelry  are  worked  out  and  the 
decoration  applied.      (See  Figure  5.) 

For  etched  patterns  the  design  is  drawn  upon  the 
metal  or  transferred  by  means  of  carbon  paper,  and 
all  other  parts  of  the  metal  are  covered  with  a  protec- 
tive coating  of  varnish.     The  article  is  then  dipped 


CRAFTSMAN  JEWELRY 


131 


into  nitric  acid  which  cuts  into  the  uncovered  por- 
tions. 

Engraving  and  chasing  are  done  with  steel  tools. 
By  engraving,  a  part  of  the  metal  is  cut  away.  Chased 
or  repousse  work  is  raised  above  the  surface.  For 
chasing,  the  article  is  placed  on  a  block  of  wood  and 
the  design  first  traced  with  a  blunt  steel  chisel,  then 
the  background  is  beaten  down  with  other  tools.  If 
the  design  is  to  stand  out  from  the  surface  the  article 
is  placed  on  a  pitch  block  (see  page  66).  After  the 
design  is  traced  the  piece  is  turned  over  and  it  is 
beaten  up  from  the  back,  then  turned  again  and  the 
background  beaten  down. 

Piercing  is  done  with  a  sharp  chisel  on  the  traced 
lines  or  with  fine  steel  saws. 

Metal  Finishes 

Many  different  finishes  are  given  to  metals. 

Silver  may  be  oxidized  or  given  a  satin  finish. 
Oxidized  or  blackened  silver  is  produced  by  the 
application  of  a  compound  of  sulphur  with  either 
potassium,  barium,  or  ammonia.  For  a  soft  dull 
finish  it  is  put  in  a  ''pickle"  of  sulphuric  acid  and  then 
polished  with  emery  and  jeweler's  rouge.  When  silver 
is  heated  to  redness  a  thin  white  scale  forms  on  it, 
called  ''fire  scale"  which  can  be  removed  with  acid  or 
may  be  polished  off.    If  the  scale  is  broken  it  must  all 


132 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


be  taken  off,  but  if  it  is  gently  rubbed  down  it  gives 
the  metal  a  soft  luster  which  is  more  beautiful  than 
the  bright  finish. 

Copper  is  given  a  bright  finish  by  dipping  it  in  nitric 
and  sulphuric  acid.  A  satin  finish  is  produced  with  a 
wire  brush.  '  It  is  oxidized  with  potassium  sulphide 
and  ammonia,  and  given  the  familiar  green  finish  in  a 
number  of  ways.  A  green  film  is  produced  on  copper 
whenever  it  is  brought  in  contact  with  ammonia  or 
even  common  salt  and  water,  but  this  color  may  be 
varied  by  using  different  chemical  combinations,  while 
others  will  color  it  red  or  brown.  Copper  may  be 
given  an  iridescent  coloring  by  passing  it  through  a 
flame.  Brass  may  be  colored  gray,  steel  blue,  bronze, 
or  green  by  the  use  of  various  chemicals. 

Aluminum  is  frosted  or  oxidized. 

To  make  a  finish  permanent  the  metal  must  be 
lacquered  with  white  shellac,  banana  oil,  or  a  similar 
preparation,  or  it  must  be  waxed. 

Enamels 

The  enamels  used  in  craftsman  jewelry  are  opaque 
and  jewel-like,  and  with  the  precious  stones,  such  as 
baroque  pearls,  turquoises  and  turquoise  matrix,  azurite, 
and  rhodonite,  serve  to  complete  and  brighten  the 
design.  They  are  chosen  for  their  beautiful  colors 
rather  than  for  their  intrinsic  value. 


CRAFTSMAN  JEWELRY 


133 


Beads 

Real  oriental  jewelry  may  be  seen  in  strings  of 
beads,  jade,  ivory,  coral,  and  semiprecious  stones  which 
are  finished  with  carved  pendants  of  curious  design. 

Bead  chains  are  made  of  Venetian  glass,  mosaic, 
and  oriental  beads,  combined  with  metal  beads  and 
slides  with  and  without  pendants.  Some  bead  chains 
are  woven  in  patterns  on  small  looms.  This  art  was  de- 
veloped in  France  as  an  industry  for  crippled  soldiers 
after  the  war. 

Beads  are  the  most  ancient  of  all  forms  of  ornaments, 
unless  we  except  flowers.  Nobody  knows  who  first 
invented  beads.  Perhaps  it  was  some  savage  who 
found  nuts  or  oak  balls  in  the  forest  and  threaded 
them  together  on  a  stalk  of  grass.  Anything  with  a 
hole  through  it  served  at  the  beginning  for  beads — 
shells,  fish  teeth,  claws  of  beasts,  and  seeds.  But  the 
great  age  of  beads  began  with  invention  of  glass,  and 
the  Egyptians,  Carthaginians,  and  Phoenicians  gener- 
ally were  skilled  craftsmen  at  bead  making. 

Methods  of  Manufacture 

The  Near  East  is  still  making  jewelry  as  it  was 
made  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  Balkan  country  may 
be  found  tiny  shops  where  they  melt  coins  down  to 
make  silver  jewelry.  A  strip  of  metal  will  be  drawn 
by  hand  through  the  holes  of  a  draw  plate  and  the 


134 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


wire   formed  by  hand  into  rosettes  and  scrolls  or 
bracelets,  chains,  and  hat  pins. 

In  out-of-the-way  places  throughout  Europe  the 
craftsman  still  makes  quaint  and  beautiful  ornaments 
by  hand,  but  where  the  factory  system  prevails  the 
craftsman  has  been  driven  out  by  the  cheaper  machine 
products.  Now  there  is  an  educational  campaign 
seeking  to  revive  craftsmanship  and  see  that  handwork 
receives  due  appreciation. 


Chapter  XVIII 

FANS  AND  FANCY  BAGS 

Types  of  Fans 

One  of  the  sections  of  the  Jewelry  Department  is 
usually  devoted  to  fans.  Their  ornamental  character 
and  the  beautiful  materials  of  which  the  finer  ones 
are  made  suggest  this  department  as  the  natural  place 
for  their  display. 

The  principal  types  of  fans  used  today  are: 

1.  The  Fixed 

2.  The  Radial 

3.  The  Brise  or  lamellar 

4.  The  Folding 

The  fixed  fan  has  a  leaf  immovably  fastened  to  the 
stick.  It  is  usually  found  in  the  simpler  materials,  such 
as  the  palm  leaf  fan  or  those  made  of  printed  gauze. 

The  radial  fan  is  made  of  a  strip  of  material  pleated 
together  and  fastened  to  the  handle  with  a  pin  so  that 
when  spread  out  it  forms  a  circle  with  this  pin  at  the 
center. 

The  Brise  or  lamellar  fan  is  made  of  strips  or  blades 

135 


Pi 


136 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


of  thin  wood  or  other  stiff  material  fastened  together 
at  one  end.  When  folded  it  forms  a  narrow  oblong; 
open,  a  semicircle.  The  free  ends  of  the  sticks  are 
laced  together  with  ribbon  or  cord. 

The  folding  fan  has  sticks  or  blades  similar  to  the 
lamellar,  but  with  a  folded  strip  of  paper,  silk,  or 
other  material  connecting  the  blades  and  extending 
about  half  the  depth  of  the  fan.  When  opened  out 
this  folded  piece  forms  the  leaf  of  the  fan. 

Materials 

The  sticks  of  fans  are  made  of  wood,  ivory,  bone, 
celluloid,  tortoise  shell,  and  mother-of-pearl.  Most  of 
these  materials  are  described  elsewhere  in  this  manual. 
The  wood  used  is  light  and  easily  splintered,  except 
sandalwood,  which  is  close  grained,  may  be  exquisitely 
carved,  and  has  a  delicate  and  permanent  fragrance. 
Mother-of-pearl  is  composed  of  calcium  carbonate, 
the  same  substance  as  the  pearl.  It  is  the  inside  sur- 
face of  many  varieties  of  seashells  and  occurs  in  the 
most  beautiful  iridescent  colors.  The  pieces  are  usu- 
ally cut  in  very  thin  layers  which  are  glued  or  ce- 
mented to  the  wood  forming  the  foundation. 

The  leaf  of  the  fan  may  be  made  of  gauze,  silk,  or 
satin,  specially  prepared  skins,  as  parchment,  vellum, 
kid  (sometimes  called  chicken  skin),  of  lace,  quills  or 
ostrich  feathers,  or  of  paper.     These  materials  are  all 


.. 


FANS  AND  FANCY  BAGS 


137 


described   in  the  manuals   for  the   Stationery,   Silk, 
Leather  Goods  or  Millinery  departments. 

Manufacture 

Paper  fans  are  made  chiefly  in  Japan  and  Qiina. 
Labor  is  so  cheap  in  these  countries  and  the  workmen 
have  become  such  adepts  in  handling  the  thin  light 
wood,  in  making  the  tough  rice  paper,  and  in  sketch- 
ing their  effective  designs  that  other  countries  do  not 
try  to  compete  with  them.  The  Japanese  also  make 
many  fans  of  gauze  and  the  Chinese  of  ivory  and 
sandalwood  exquisitely  carved. 

France  is  the  European  country  from  which  we  have 
obtained  the  greatest  number  of  fans.  Watteau  and 
other  French  artists  excelled  in  painting  miniatures  and 
other  beautiful  pictures  upon  them.  The  French  have 
also  made  fans  of  lace,  of  embroidered  and  spangled 
gauze  or  silk,  and  have  set  mirrors  in  them.  Vernis 
Martin  invented  the  fine  varnish  or  lacquer  which  is 
used  on  certain  fans  of  the  Brise  type. 

We  have  also  Spanish,  Italian,  and  English  fans 
decorated  characteristically  with  painting,  gilding,  and 
etching  or  printing. 

The  design  of  the  lace  fan  shown  in  Figure  7  has 
many  excellent  features.  The  floral  pattern  is  con- 
ventionalized in  such  a  way  that  the  flower  form  is 
preserved,  and  yet,  at  the  same  time,  is  well-adapted 


138 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


to  the  material.  The  design  is  also  so  proportioned 
that  it  is  effective,  that  is,  does  not  appear  fragmentary 
when  the  fan  is  only  partly  spread. 

History 

The  fan  originated  in  hot  countries  where  it  was 
used  as  a  shield  from  the  sun  as  well  as  for  the  purpose 
of  creating  a  current  of  air  and  brushing  away  insects. 
It  was  a  badge  of  rank  and  a  luxury,  and  was  usually 
carried  and  swung  by  slaves.  On  ceremonial  occasions 
fans  were  carried  by  poles  as  flags  or  banners.  These 
ceremonial  fans  were  very  large  with  long  handles  or 
standards  beautifully  decorated.  The  Egyptians  used 
fans  made  of  ostrich  feathers;  in  India  the  feathers 
were  from  the  peacock ;  in  China,  fans  were  sawed  out 
of  ivory  nearly  a  thousand  years  b.  c,  the  works  being 
within  the  palace  at  Pekin.  Oriental  fans  had  beauti- 
ful handles  of  gold  and  silver  filigree,  enamel,  tortoise 
shell,  and  mothernDf -pearl. 

Spanish  women  have  been  noted  for  their  coquettish 
use  of  the  fan  which  is  made  by  them  to  speak  a  sort 
of  sign  language.  The  Spanish  fan  may  vary  from  an 
exceedingly  small  to  a  very  large  size.  The  North 
American  Indians  use  fans  made  of  eagles'  feathers. 

Mesh  Bags 

Mesh  bags  are  made  of  small  interlacing  rings  cut 


c 
(^ 

Qi 
U 

cd 
u 

a 

CA 

Q 


INTENTIONAL     SECOND  EXPOSURE 


138 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


to  the  material.  The  design  is  also  so  proportioned 
that  it  is  effective,  that  is,  does  not  appear  fragmentary 
when  the  fan  is  only  partly  spread. 

History 

The  fan  originated  in  hot  countries  where  it  was 
used  as  a  shield  from  the  sun  as  well  as  for  the  purpose 
of  creating  a  current  of  air  and  brushing  away  insects. 
It  was  a  badge  of  rank  and  a  luxury,  and  was  usually 
carried  and  swung  by  slaves.  On  ceremonial  occasions 
fans  were  carried  by  poles  as  flags  or  banners.  These 
ceremonial  fans  were  very  large  with  long  handles  or 
standards  beautifully  decorated.  The  Egyptians  used 
fans  made  of  ostrich  feathers;  in  India  the  feathers 
were  from  the  peacock ;  in  China,  fans  were  sawed  out 
of  ivory  nearly  a  thousand  years  b.  c,  the  works  being 
within  the  palace  at  Pekin.  Oriental  fans  had  beauti- 
ful handles  of  gold  and  silver  filigree,  enamel,  tortoise 
shell,  and  mother-of-pearl. 

Spanish  women  have  been  noted  for  their  coquettish 
use  of  the  fan  which  is  made  by  them  to  speak  a  sort 
of  sign  language.  The  Spanish  fan  may  vary  from  an 
exceedingly  small  to  a  very  large  size.  The  North 
American  Indians  use  fans  made  of  eagles'  feathers. 

Mesh  Bags 

Mesh  bags  are  made  of  small  interlacing  rings  cut 


' 


o 
c 

V) 

Q 


u 


MB 

m 


-J 
■1 


FANS  AND  FANCY  BAGS 


139 


from  fine  wire.  They  may  be  of  solid  or  plated  gold 
or  silver,  gunmetal,  or  German  silver. 

The  rings  are  made  by  wrapping  the  wire  around 
a  mandrel.  When  the  spiral  formed  in  this  way  is 
cut  lengthwise  it  falls  into  tiny  rings  open  on  one  side. 
These  rings  were  formerly  put  together  by  hand  and 
in  the  best  bags  soldered  by  hand.  This  made  mesh 
bags  very  expensive. 

A  machine  has  recently  been  invented  which  inter- 
laces and  presses  the  rings  together.  The  heavier  wire 
is  soldered  but  finer  meshes  do  not  require  anything 
but  that  the  ends  of  the  rings  shall  touch.  Gold  and 
silver  bags  are  now  made  with  an  exceedingly  fine 
mesh  in  which  the  rings  are  hardly  perceptible. 

Ornamental  Tops 

The  ornamental  tops  of  the  bags  are  made  of  hand- 
wrought  metal,  or  stamped  out  by  machinery  according 
to  the  grade  of  the  article.  A  gold  bag  may  have  the 
clasp  studded  with  jewels  and  enriched  with  enamels. 
For  the  luxurious  they  are  even  made  with  fringes 
of  precious  stones.  Some  mesh  bags  are  drawn  up 
with  a  chain. 

Leather,  silk,  and  velvet  bags  are  also  made  with 
clasps  of  gold  and  silver,  but  the  precious  metal  is 
usually  plated  or  filled,  not  only  to  lessen  the  cost  but 
to  make  it  stronger. 


140 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Bead  Bags 

Bead  bags  are  a  revival  of  a  fashion  popular  in  the 
early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  bags  which 
some  are  fortunate  enough  to  have  handed  down  to 
them  are  so  exquisitely  made  and  of  such  fine  beads 
that  they  cannot  be  duplicated  today. 

The  beads  for  this  purpose  are  of  glass,  pottery, 
or  steel.  Glass  beads  are  made  in  a  multitude  of  tints 
and  shades  which  are  combined  in  very  elaborate 
designs.    These  bags  are  made  in  three  ways : 

1.  A  canvas  foundation  is  stamped  with  the  pattern 
which  is  then  worked  as  in  embroidery.  Each  bead  is 
sewed  on  separately  and  the  bag  is  afterward  put  in 
water  and  shrunk  in  order  to  tighten  up  the  beads. 

2.  The  beads  are  strung  on  heavy  silk  thread  which 
is  crocheted  or  knitted  into  the  bag. 

3.  The  bags  may  be  woven  on  bead  looms. 

The  French  make  a  specialty  of  bags  which  are  of 
very  fine  beads  and  beautifully  made. 

Bags  made  of  steel  beads  are  sometimes  solid  but 
more  often  have  bands  of  beads  or  bead  embroidery 
on  a  crocheted  silk  foundation. 

Bead  bags  may  have  a  metal  clasp  or  be  drawn  up 
with  a  draw  string.  The  latter  have  a  tassel  to  finish 
the  lower  end  and  may  have  a  ruffle  of  silk  above  the 
top.  Bags  of  this  type  can  be  made  by  machine  but 
the  difference  between  such  bags  and  handmade  ones 
is  very  apparent. 


Chapter  XIX 

COMBS  AND  HAIR  ORNAMENTS 

T3rpes 

Combs  and  barrettes  are  used  to  ornament  the  hair 
as  well  as  to  hold  it  in  place.     They  may  be  classed  as : 

1.  Back-combs 

2.  Side-combs 

3.  Ornamental  hairpins 

4.  Bandeaux 

5.  Barrettes 

Hair  ornaments  and  combs  are  made  of  tortoise 
shell,  amber,  jet,  silver,  silverite  (a  composition  metal), 
celluloid,  and  hard  rubber.  They  may  be  ornamented 
with  gold,  silver,  enamel,  precious  stones,  and  imita- 
tion stones.  They  are  made  in  many  shapes  and  sizes 
and  form  a  large  division  of  the  Jewelry  Department 
materials.  The  styles  vary  with  the  prevailing  fashion 
for  dressing  the  hair. 

Tortoise  Shell 

Real  or  imitation  tortoise  shell  is  the  most  approved 
material  for  the  foimdation  of  all  hair  ornaments. 

141 


142 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Tortoise  shell  is  composed  of  the  scales  or  outer  shell 
of  the  hawksbill  turtle  which  grows  to  a  very  large 
size.  The  color  is  brown  or  amber,  more  or  less  mot- 
tled or  clouded.  Clear  amber  shells  are  the  most  valu- 
able and  the  red  brown  comes  next.  The  dark  brown 
shells  sell  for  less  than  half  the  price  of  the  amber. 
After  the  plates  have  been  removed  from  the  turtle's 
back  the  animal  is  put  back  in  the  water. 

The  best  tortoise  shell  is  found  in  the  Indian  Ocean 
but  the  center  of  the  tortoise  shell  industry  is  Naples, 
Italy.  There  and  in  some  other  Italian  towns  the 
shells  are  scraped  with  knives  and  files  and  polished 
with  olive  oil  or  rottenstone.  The  scales  are  then 
softened  by  boiling  them  in  oil  or  water  and  molded 
into  shape.  They  may  be  welded  together  after  being 
boiled,  by  the  pressure  of  hot  irons. 

Tortoise  shell  has  been  used  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses for  many  centuries. 

Tortoise  shell  may  be  imitated  in  horn  or  celluloid, 
but  the  imitations  lack  the  brilliant  polish  and  clear 
color  of  the  real  shell. 

Amber 

See  Giapter  IX,  "Description  of  Stones,"  for  a 
description  of  amber.  Amber  combs  are  very  effective 
and  beautiful  for  golden  hair. 


COMBS  AND  HAIR  ORNAMENTS 


143 


Jet 

Jet  is  a  form  of  dense  coal,  tougher  and  more  com- 
pact than  common  coal,  which  can  be  carved  and 
polished.  It  is  also  called  black  amber  because  it  pro- 
duces electricity  when  rubbed.  The  softer  kinds  are 
sometimes  called  bastard  jet.  The  finest  varieties  of 
jet  come  from  Whitby,  England.  Some  of  it  is  mined 
but  at  times  it  is  washed  up  on  the  shore  near  Whitby. 
Jet  is  also  found  in  Spain  but  it  is  not  so  lustrous  or  so 
durable.  Spanish  jet  contains  sulphur  which  is  af- 
fected by  extreme  heat  and  cold  and  will  chip  and 

break. 

Rough  jet  is  covered  with  a  hard  blue  or  brown 
shell  which  must  be  removed  with  a  large  chisel.  The 
block  is  then  sawed  into  pieces  of  the  required  size. 
These  are  shaped  on  a  grindstone,  and  the  surfaces 
ground,  after  which  they  are  ready  to  be  carved. 
Beads,  heads  of  hat  pins,  etc.,  are  made  from  the 
smaller  pieces,  although  Spanish  jet  is  more  commonly 
used  for  such  articles. 

Jet  is  spoken  of  in  old  Saxon  poetry  and  was  used 
for  beads,  buttons,  and  other  kinds  of  jewelry  before 
the  Romans  conquered  Britain.  It  was  used  for  rosa- 
ries by  the  priests  of  Whitby  Abbey  probably  as  early 
as  the  fourteenth  century,  and  in  1598  there  was  a 
regular  trade  in  jet. 


144  JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 

Horn 

Horn,  as  its  name  implies,  comes  from  the  horns  of 
the  ox,  buffalo,  sheep,  and  goat.  It  may  resemble 
tortoise  shell  and  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  it,  but  it 
is  less  brilliant  and  more  brittle  so  that  it  cannot  be 
carved.  Horn  has  streaks  of  color  and  mottled  spots 
which  are  often  beautiful  in  their  shading. 

Celluloid 

Celluloid  is  composed  of  vegetable  fiber,  cellulose, 
which  has  been  treated  with  acids,  camphor,  and  other 
substances  until  it  has  become  plastic  and  capable  of 
being  molded  into  permanent  forms.  While  it  is  still 
soft  it  may  be  colored  to  imitate  ivory,  amber,  shell, 
horn,  or  even  pearl. 

For  imitation  tortoise  shell,  the  mass  is  dyed  a  light 
yellowish-brown  and  then  sprayed  with  color  in  spots, 
or  thin  sheets  of  different  colors  are  passed  under 
heated  rolls  which  blend  them  together.  Sometimes  it 
is  colored  by  hand. 

For  amber,  yellow  dyestuff  is  dissolved  in  the  solu- 
tion of  camphor  used  in  the  process.  Translucent  or 
opaque  patches  of  natural  color  are  imitated  by  rolling 
small  pieces  of  the  deeper  colored  material  with  the 
amber-colored  sheets. 

The  effect  of  horn  is  given  by  building  up  layers  of 
celluloid  sheets  having  spots,  colors,  and  lines  in  them, 


COMBS  AND  HAIR  ORNAMENTS 


145 


and  by  heat  and  pressure  combining  them  into  a  varie- 
gated mass  which  can  then  be  carved  or  molded. 

Manufacture  of  Combs 

Like  all  other  processes,  that  of  making  combs,  cut- 
ting the  teeth,  welding  the  parts  together,  and  decorat- 
ing them,  was  originally  done  by  hand.  The  first  ma- 
chine for  making  combs  was  invented  in  1798.  The 
teeth  were  then  cut  by  a  fine  saw,  but  in  1814  a  machine 
was  invented  to  cut  combs  at  one  operation.  Some 
machinery  is  so  delicate  that  it  will  cut  one  hundred 
teeth  to  an  inch. 

The  tops  of  tortoise  shell  and  amber  combs  and  bar- 
rettes  are  often  beautifully  carved.  This  is  especially 
the  case  when  large  Spanish  combs  are  in  fashion. 
Celluloid  is  pressed  to  look  like  carving.  Gold,  rhine- 
stones,  and  silver  filigree  and  enamel  are  also  used  but 
rhinestones  are  the  most  popular  decorations  because 
of  their  brilliance  which  is  shown  to  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage against  dark  hair.  Cut  steel  is  less  brilliant 
though  it  also  makes  a  glittering  decoration. 

Because  of  their  plastic  material,  combs  of  all  these 
materials  can  be  mended  by  welding  the  pieces  together 
under  heat  and  pressure. 

History 

Combs  made  of  boxwood  were  used  among  the 
Egyptians.     The   ancient   wooden   combs    shown   in 


146 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Figure  8.     Primitive  Wooden  Combs 
(Courtesy  of  International  Studio) 


COMBS  AND  HAIR  ORNAMENTS 


147 


Figure  8  are  illustrations  of  this  type.  Roman  ladies 
plaited  and  crimped  their  hair  and  filled  it  with  orna- 
ments. During  the  Middle  Ages  combs  were  made  of 
ivory,  precious  metals,  and  horn  handsomely  carved 
and  decorated  with  jewels.  In  Spain  and  Mexico  the 
comb  is  the  most  elaborate  ornament  of  women. 
These  combs  are  very  large  and  costly  as  they  are 
carved  in  the  most  exquisite  lacelike  filigree.  The  first 
factory  in  the  United  States  for  the  making  of  horn 
combs  was  opened  at  West  Newbury,  Mass.,  in  1759. 


Chapter  XX 

HISTORY  OF  JEWELRY 
Jewelry  Among  Savage  Tribes 

One  of  the  first  signs  that  men  have  developed  a 
sense  of  beauty  is  their  desire  for  decoration.  Even 
the  lowest  groups  of  savages  paint  their  bodies  and 
wear  strings  of  beads,  stones,  or  other  ornaments. 
Their  tools  may  be  very  crude  and  their  clothing  scanty, 
but  they  find  some  way  of  making  themselves  attractive 
in  their  own  eyes.  Early  metal  workers  were  largely 
engaged  in  making  ornaments  as  well  as  useful  articles, 
and  these  ornaments  were  usually  worn  by  men  rather 
than  by  women. 

In  Ancient  History 

We  cannot  read  any  accounts  of  the  life  of  ancient 
people  without  finding  descriptions  of  their  jewelry, 
and  when  buried  treasures  are  dug  up  from  the  ruins 
of  ancient  cities  the  remnants  of  jewelry  are  among  the 
most  frequent  discoveries. 

Egyptian  jewelers  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  skill 
in  the  handling  of  the  precious  metals  and  in  carving 

148 


HISTORY  OF  JEWELRY 


149 


precious  stones.     All  oriental  countries  have  paid  much 
attention  to  jewelry.     Oriental  beauties  are  loaded  with 


Irish  Fin 


Graeco-Roman 
Figure  9.    Ancient  Pins 


Egyptian  Hairpin 


rings,  bracelets,  chains,  and  ankle  ornaments.  Greek 
jewelry  was  as  perfect  in  form  and  proportion  as  other 
ornaments.  The  Greeks  excelled  in  embossing,  en- 
graving, and  filigree  work.  Roman  jewelry  was 
heavier,  with  less  grace  and  more  magnificence.  The 
pins  in  Figure  9  illustrate  the  characteristics  of  jewelry 
of  these  various  periods. 


J50 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


HISTORY  OF  JEWELRY 


151 


U 


The  peasants  of  European  countries  have  kept  the 
old  types  of  silver  and  gold  jewelry  which  have  been 
handed  down  for  many  generations  and  are  often  very 
quaint  and  of  fine  workmanship,  though  much  of  it  is 
rather  monotonous,  because  of  the  repetition  of  a  few 
traditional  designs. 

Renaissance  jewelry  was  very  gorgeous  and  elabo- 
rately ornamented  with  enamel  and  precious  stones.  It 
was  often  worked  up  in  symbolic  designs  of  large  size 
and  many  parts. 

Centers  of  Modern  Industry 

London  and  Paris  have  been  the  centers  of  jewelry 
manufacture,  but  large  amounts  of  cheap  jewelry  are 
now  made  in  various  parts  of  England,  France,  and 
Germany.  Garnet  jewelry  is  made  at  Prague,  filigree 
work  and  mosaics  at  Florence,  Venice,  and  Rome, 
while  tortoise  shell  jewelry  is  made  in  Naples,  Rome, 
and  Florence.  Holland  has  been  the  center  of  the 
diamond-cutting  industry,  but  diamonds  are  now  cut  in 
America.  A  large  part  of  the  solid  and  plated  jewelry 
used  in  this  country  is  manufactured  here,  the  center 
of  the  industry  being  the  New  England  States. 

History  of  American  Jewelry 

The  use  of  jewelry  was  not  approved  by  our  Puritan 
forefathers,  and  gold  and  silversmiths  were  only  al- 


lowed to  make  belt  buckles  and  shoe  buckles  for  men 
and  wedding  rings  and  simple  brooches  for  women. 
Today  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut 
make  a  large  percentage  of  the  jewelry  and  ornamental 
silverware  for  the  entire  country. 

Nehemiah  Dodge  was  the  pioneer  among  American 
jewelers.  He  began  to  manufacture  jewelry  in  1794, 
at  first  making  ornaments  from  18  karat  gold.  Later 
he  introduced  rolled  plate  by  which  he  soldered  a  thin 
sheet  of  gold  on  a  thicker  sheet  of  copper  and  then 
hammered  and  rolled  the  combined  sheet  still  thinner. 

He  was  able  to  reduce  the  cost  of  manufacture  and 
therefore  began  to  sell  jewelry  to  other  goldsmiths, 
becoming  the  first  manufacturing  jeweler.  Out  of  this 
enterprise  grew  the  great  jewelry  industry,  centering 
in  Providence,  R.  L,  and  in  Attleboro,  Mass.  Jabez 
Gorham,  the  founder  of  the  Gorham  Company,  was 
apprenticed  to  Dodge. 

In  182 1  filigree  jewelry  was  introduced  by  a  French- 
man. In  1846  Thomas  H.  Lane,  who  came  to  Provi- 
dence from  Birmingham,  England,  began  to  make 
rolled  plate  by  sweating  the  thin  sheet  on  the  base  metal 
instead  of  soldering  it  on.  This  method  was  simpler, 
better,  and  more  economical  than  the  soldering  proc- 
ess. 

The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  added  a  strong 
impetus  to  the  manufacture  of  jewelry.     The  Civil 


m 


.  f! 

t4 


ii 


aSf  1- 


152 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


War  checked  it  for  a  time,  but  it  has  had  a  steady 
growth  for  the  past  forty  years. 

History  of  Various  Articles 

The  history  of  different  articles  of  jewelry  is  most 
interesting  as  it  is  connected  with  religious  and  social 
customs  and  political  history. 

Brooches  and  pins  were  necessary  for  holding  gar- 
ments together,  as  they  were  used  before  buttons.     The 
brooch  is  merely  an  ornamented  safety  pin,  while  the 
more  simple  stick-pin  is  only  a  development  from  the 
thorn,  which  savages  used  for  holding  things  together. 
Rings  are  among  the  most  ancient  ornaments,  often 
having  a  religious  or  mystical  meaning.     Signet  or 
seal  rings  are  of  oriental  origin,  but  were  also  used  by 
the  Romans  to  seal  documents.     Engagement  or  be- 
trothal   rings    were    originally   large   and    curiously 
wrought.     The  custom  of  wearing  them  on  the  third 
finger  of  the  left  hand  is  supposed  to  have  originated  in 
the  belief  that  a  vein  ran  from  that  finger  directly  to 
the  heart.     They  were  only  worn  at  the  ceremony  and 
then  kept  as  mementos.     Wedding  rings  were  also 
highly  decorated.     They  are  of  very  ancient  origin. 
The  use  of  wedding  rings  was  considered  a  pagan 
custom,  and  was  not  adopted  by  Christians  until  about 
860  A.  D. 

Chains  of  massive  links  were  worn  by  kings  and 


HISTORY  OF  JEWELRY 


153 


nobles  until  a  comparatively  recent  period.  They 
were  considered  one  of  the  badges  of  rank.  Bracelets 
and  ankle  ornaments  have  always  been  worn  in  pro- 
fusion by  women  in  oriental  countries.  At  one  time  a 
broad  band  of  gold  worn  on  the  upper  part  of  the  arm 
was  considered  a  suitable  ornament  for  men. 

The  use  of  elaborate  jewelry  is  no  longer  considered 
good  form  for  men  and  jewelry  for  women  is  tending 
more  toward  artistic  and  dainty  designs  rather  than 
great  display;  but  the  love  of  beautiful  ornaments  of 
gold  and  precious  stones  seems  to  be  a  permanent  in- 
stinct that  will  always  make  jewelry  a  field  for  the 
artist  and  manufacturer. 


Chapter  XXI 

BIRTHSTONES 
Origin 

The  term  birthstone  or  natal  stone  is  given  to  the 
precious  stone  which  is  popularly  assigned  to  the  month 
in  which  one  is  born.  The  custom  of  associating  cer- 
tain gems  with  certain  months  of  the  year  is  of  very 
ancient  origin,  but  the  custom  of  wearing  the  stone  be- 
longing to  the  month  of  one's  birth  has  only  developed 
during  the  last  few  centuries. 

The  Romans  had  many  traditions  about  precious 
stones  and  in  each  month  one  or  more  stones  were  sup- 
posed to  have  peculiar  power,  especially  in  warding  off 
disease  or  danger. 

Early  in  the  Christian  era  these  traditions  began  to 
be  effective.  The  stones  selected  for  the  months  did 
not  exactly  follow  the  Roman  order,  but  were  almost 
identical  with  the  order  of  the  twelve  stones  in  the 
breastplate  of  the  Jewish  high  priest  and  the  stones  of 
the  New  Jerusalem.  The  changes  in  the  lists  were 
probably  due  to  changes  in  the  names  of  the  stones  or 
uncertainty  as  to  the  stone  referred  to. 

154 


BIRTHSTONES 


155 


The  Original  List 

The  following  list  of  natal  stones  is  given  by  so 
eminent  an  authority  as  Mr.  George  Frederick  Kunz 
as  the  one  believed  in  for  the  past  five  hundred  years : 


January 

Garnet 

July 

Turquoise 

February 

Amethyst 

Onyx 

Hyacinth 

August 

Sardonyx 

Pearl 

Carnelian 

March 

Jasper 

Moonstone 

Bloodstone 

Topaz 

April 

Diamond 

September 

Chrysolite 

X 

Sapphire 

October 

Beryl 

May 

Emerald 

Opal 

¥ 

Agate 

November 

Topaz 

June 

Cat's  Eye 

Pearl 

•/ 

Turquoise 

December 

Ruby 

Agate 

Bloodstone 

The  New  List 

The  National  Association  of  Jewelers  which  met  in 
Kansas  City  in  August,  1913.  adopted  a  list  of  birth- 
stones  in  which  they  made  certain  important  changes  as 
follows : 

January         Garnet  March  Aquamarine 

February       Amethyst  April  Diamond 

March  Bloodstone        May  Emerald 


156 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


June 

Pearl 

October         Opal 

Moonstone 

Tourmaline 

July 

Ruby 

November     Topaz 

August 

Sardonyx 

December     Turquoise 

Peridot 

Lapis  Lazuli 

September 

Sapphire 

Nearly  all  the  months  have  at  least  one  of  the  tra- 
ditional stones  still  associated  with  it,  but  as  the  whole 
subject  is  one  of  sentiment  rather  than  convenience  it 
seems  strange  that  any  arbitrary  changes  should  have 
been  made,  especially  such  drastic  ones  as  the  trans- 
fer of  the  turquoise  from  June  and  July  to  December 
and  of  the  ruby  from  December  to  July. 

In  suggesting  birthstones  to  customers  salespeople 
should  know  the  real  traditions  concerning  them  as 
many  people  would  prefer  the  fiery  ruby  to  the  cold 
turquoise  for  a  December  birthday,  and  in  any  case 
would  prefer  to  follow  the  traditional  custom. 


Chapter  XXII 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND 

CUSTOMERS 

Arrangement,  Display,  and  Care  of  Stock 

No  department  of  the  store  will  repay  careful  ar- 
rangement and  display  so  well  as  that  containing  jew- 
elry, as  not  only  the  individual  pieces  but  the  beauty 
of  the  whole  is  the  basis  of  appeal  to  the  customer. 

Arrangement  should  include  suitable  backgrounds 
(black  or  purple  velvet  is  best  for  gold ;  silver-gray  or 
sapphire-blue  for  platinum),  careful  lighting,  and  com- 
binations which  will  enhance  rather  than  lessen  the 
artistic  effect  of  individual  beauty. 

Jewelry  should  be  kept  free  from  dust  which  not 
only  detracts  from  its  appearance  but  scratches  the 
polished  surfaces.  In  addition  to  a  jewelry  brush  the 
salesperson  should  always  have  chamois  or  selvyt  and 
soft  canton  flannel  for  wiping  the  articles  after  they 
have  been  handled. 

The  salesperson's  hands  should  always  be  kept  clean 
and  dry  and  articles  should  be  handled  by  their  edges 
so  far  as  possible.  All  moisture  should  be  immediately 
removed  as  it  injures  the  finish. 

157 


158 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


Lockets,  vanity  cases,  and  other  articles  which  close 
with  clasps  or  snaps  should  be  opened  and  cleaned  on 
the  inside  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  dust  and 
moisture.  The  hinges  or  springs  should  be  given 
special  attention. 

Some  materials  and  finishes  are  unusually  perishable 
and  should  be  given  special  care.  Roman  gold  must 
not  be  rubbed  but  wiped  carefully.  Gun-metal  will 
rust  and  therefore  must  be  kept  free  from  all  moisture. 

Enamel  is  scratched  by  polishing  powders  and  care 
must  be  taken  when  rubbing  up  enameled  jewelry. 
Jet  is  very  perishable  and  must  be  handled  carefully 
to  prevent  chipping. 

Materials 

A  knowledge  of  the  relative  values  and  character- 
istics of  gold  and  platinum  will  help  to  make  good 
sales.  Some  "  pure  "  gold  is  sold  which  contains  so 
much  copper  that  it  will  leave  a  greenish  stain  on  the 
skin  in  hot  weather.  This  explanation  may  be  made  so 
that  the  customer  will  not  think  she  has  been  cheated. 

Precious  stones  are  so  interesting  that  almost  every 
customer  will  gladly  receive  information  with  regard 
to  their  colors,  relative  values,  most  effective  place- 
ment, etc. 

The  difference  between  synthetic  stones  and  imita- 
tion stones  should  be  clearly  in  a  salesperson's  mind  as 


SELLING  SUGGESTIONS 


159 


the  first  are  real  stones,  though  not  so  valuable  as  natu- 
rally formed  ones. 

Manufacture 

Since  the  making  of  jewelry  is  one  of  the  fine  arts,  a 
knowledge  of  the  hand  work  involved,  and  of  the  way 
in  which  designs  are  built  up,  especially  a  knowledge  of 
the  principles  of  design  as  shown  in  metal  work,  can 
give  a  salesperson  most  effective  and  legitimate  selling 

points. 

Customers  usually  know  very  little  of  enameling  or 
how  cameos  and  intaglios  are  made.  They  will  be  in- 
terested in  comparing  the  goldsmith's  method  with  the 
coppersmith's. 

Practical  questions  as  to  durability  and  suitability 
may  be  also  answered  from  a  knowledge  of  manufac- 
ture. 

The  advantages  of  soldered  links  over  those  which 
are  merely  pressed  together,  different  types  of  clasps 
and  hinges,  and  the  strength  and  security  of  each 
should  be  known  and  explained.  Stone  cutting  and 
setting  are  not  less  important. 

History 

Many  telling  points  can  be  made  if  one  is  familiar 
with  the  history  and  customs  regarding  jewelry. 
Nearly  every  precious  stone  and  every  kind  of  orna- 
ment has  its  romantic  or  practical  story;  sometimes 


i6o 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


they  have  both.  The  symbolism  of  precious  stones 
often  appeals  to  the  sentiment  of  the  customer. 
Scarabs  may  remind  one  of  the  Egyptians,  cameos  of 
the  Roman  emperors,  or  perhaps  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

The  life  of  the  coral  builder,  and  the  way  in  which 
the  color  varies  under  different  conditions,  is  another 
absorbing  story. 

The  saleswoman  will  not  always  have  a  chance  to  go 
into  these  things,  but  the  choice  of  an  ornament  or 
jewel  is  usually  made  with  some  care,  and  if  one  is 
personally  interested  and  full  of  the  subject  some  little 
remark  may  be  made  which  holds  the  attention  of  the 
customer.  A  longer  story  will  depend  on  circum- 
stances, but  the  customer  always  wants  to  be  waited  on 
by  "  one  who  knows." 

Suitability 

Jewelry  is  very  often  purchased  for  gifts.  Prob- 
ably a  very  large  percentage  of  all  such  ornaments  is 
not  intended  for  the  use  of  the  purchaser,  but  for  some 
one  else.  Customers  are  therefore  peculiarly  depend- 
ent on  the  judgment  of  the  salesperson,  because  they 
are  trying  to  satisfy  another  person's  taste  and  wishes. 
The  mischoice  of  gifts  is  shown  by  the  number  that 
come  back  after  Christmas,  and  many  more  would 
come  back  if  the  recipient  had  the  courage  to  return 
them! 


SELLING  SUGGESTIONS 


i6l 


It  is  not  possible  to  know  the  peculiar  tastes  of  peo- 
ple whom  we  have  never  seen,  but  care  and  good  sense 
would  prevent  many  an  utterly  inappropriate  one  such 
as  a  highly  ornamented  shoe  horn  for  a  young  baby,  a 
vanity  case  for  a  child  of  six,  or  gold  beads  for  an  old 
lady.     Yet  such  gifts  have  been  made  many  times. 

The  salesperson  may  very  properly  inquire  as  to 
whether  the  one  for  whom  the  gift  is  intended  is  young 
or  old,  the  favorite  color,  and  perhaps  the  color  of  hair 
and  eyes.  Turquoises  are  more  likely  to  be  worn  by 
blondes  and  topazes  by  brunettes. 

Many  people  now  adopt  their  birthstones,  and  sales- 
people should  know  the  stone  or  stones  for  each  month, 
especially  if  it  is  to  be  a  birthday  present.  If  advice 
as  to  design  or  style  is  asked,  a  conservative  opinion 
should  be  given.  It  is  unsafe  to  suggest  the  latest 
novelty  unless  it  is  for  a  young  girl,  as  good  jewelry 
is  a  permanent  possession  and  novelties  lose  their  in- 
terest. In  cheaper  jewelry  novelties  are  very  ac- 
ceptable. 

Gifts  for  special  occasions  acquire  an  added  value 
when  they  have  some  relation  to  it  Friendship 
brooches  or  bracelets  are  appropriate  for  bridesmaids 
or  girl  graduates ;  pendants  as  the  groom's  gift  to  the 

bride. 

Wedding  rings  are  now  not  always  the  plain  circlet 
of  gold,  but  are  often  carved  with  orange  blossoms  or 


1 62 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


SELLING  SUGGESTIONS 


163 


II 


other  symbolic  devices.  It  is  becoming  customary  for 
the  bride  and  groom  to  wear  matched  rings. 

Mourning  jewelry  has  its  own  conventions.  The 
amethyst,  and  diamonds  set  in  black  onyx,  or  with 
black  enamel  and  platinum  or  gun-metal  are  appropri- 
ate. 

For  people  who  "  have  everything,*'  but  are  to  re- 
ceive one  thing  more  the  salesperson  should  be  well 
informed  as  to  artistic  and  unusual  things,  both  in  the 
better  and  the  less  expensive  grades.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances the  novelty  is  appropriate,  especially  if  it 
suggests  a  new  convenience  or  satisfies  an  undiscovered 
want. 

Jewelry  for  men  should  be  distinctive  and  handsome 
rather  than  dainty.  The  Japanese  have  been  very 
successful  in  giving  jewelry  the  masculine  touch.  Men 
wish  "  correct  form  "  in  dress  more  than  artistic  effect, 
as  a  rule,  and  a  salesperson  should  keep  in  touch  with 
the  best  in  current  fashions. 

Style  in  jewelry  is  always  affected  by  style  in  dress 
and  it  is  well  to  watch  the  style  movement  as  shown  in 
shop  windows  or  on  the  street  as  well  as  in  the  goods 
which  come  into  the  department. 

Suggestions  as  to  jewelry  appropriate  for  morning, 
afternoon,  or  evening  wear  will  often  help  to  define  the 
purchaser's  idea  of  the  ornament  desired.  Jewelry 
for  morning  or  street  wear  should  be  simple  and  rather 


severe.  For  afternoon  it  may  be  more  ornate,  while 
for  evening  dress  there  is  no  limitation  except  the  per- 
sonal taste  of  the  wearer.  Sparkling  stones  like  the 
diamond  are  more  beautiful  under  artificial  light,  as 
well  as  more  appropriate  for  the  evening. 

Care 

Suggestions  as  to  the  care  of  precious  stones  are 
very  gratefully  received.  The  following  are  import- 
ant: 

Pearls  should  never  be  put  in  hot  water  and  soap  or 
chemicals,  which  will  dissolve  them.  They  must  al- 
ways be  handled  carefully,  as  they  are  soft  and  easily 
scratched.  Their  beauty  is  permanently  affected  by 
ink,  grease,  or  perspiration,  and  they  will  actually  dis- 
solve in  acids.  Extreme  heat  will  ruin  them.  Pearls 
should  be  wiped  with  a  soft  cloth  after  being  worn  or 
exposed  and  should  be  kept  wrapped  in  a  tightly  closed 
box  or  casket. 

The  same  rules  apply  to  opals,  moonstones,  and  tur- 
quoises. 

Turquoises  should  not  be  put  in  water  as  they  lose 
their  beautiful  color. 

Extreme  heat  affects  the  color  and  texture  of  nearly 
all  gems,  the  harder  ones  being  less  injured  than  soft 
stones. 

Light  oxidizes  the  softer  stones  and  causes  them 


164 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


to  fade.  Dirt  and  grease  scratch  them.  Acids  will 
change  their  color. 

Pearls  and  opals,  which  are  rather  soft  stones,  must 
be  carefully  set,  so  that  the  claws  will  not  cut  into  them. 

Jewelry  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean  and  should 
be  frequently  taken  back  to  the  jeweler  for  cleaning  as 
well  as  for  examination  of  settings  and  clasps.  Pearls 
need  to  be  restrung  once  in  three  months  as  they  wear 
upon  each  other  and  upon  the  string. 


Chapter  XXIII 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  OF  A  TYPICAL 
JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 

Divisions 

A.  Jewelry  (Gold  and  Platinum;  Plated  and  Novelty) 

B.  Fans  and  Fancy  Bags 

C.  Combs  and  Hair  Ornaments 

D.  Toilet  Articles 


A  —  Jewelry 

I.  Articles 

(a)  Rings 

Wedding 

Seal  or  Signet 

Solitaire 

Two,  Three,  and  Five  Stones 

Cluster 

Filigree 

Cameo 

(b)  Pins 

Scarf 

Brooch 

Bar 

165 


1 66  JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 

Lingerie 
Spot 

(c)  Chains 

Watch 
Lorgnette  or  Fan 

(d)  Necklaces 

Pearl 

Bead 

Dog  Collars 

Lavaliere 

Sautoir 

Festoons 

(e)  Pendants 

Lockets 
Crosses 
Lavaliere 

(f)  Bracelets 

Clasp 

Bangle 

Flexible 

(g)  Men's  Jewelry 

Rings 
Pins 
Chains 

Cuff  Buttons  and  Links 
Studs 

Collar  Buttons 
Tie  Clasps 
Dress  Sets 

Belts  and  Belt  Buckles 
2.  Materials 

(a)  Metals 

Platinum 


!il 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


167 


Gold 

Silver 

Gun-Metal 

Copper 

Nickel 

(b)  Stones 

Precious 

Synthetic  and  Reconstructed 

Imitation 

(c)  Enamel 

(d)  Ivory 

(e)  Mother-of -Pearl 

(f)  Coral 

(g)  Amber 
(h)  Jet 

3.  Manufacture 

(a)  Metals,  Combined  or  Pure 

Platinum 

Gold  and  Platinum 

Solid  Gold 

Gold-Filled 

Gold-Plated 

Sterling  Silver 

Silver-Plated 

Silverite  ( Composition  ) 

Silver  and  Copper 

Copper  and  Brass 

Gun-Metal 

(b)  Methods 

Distinctive  from  Special  Designs 
Jewelry  "  Sets  "  Finished  by  Hand 
Commercial  Jewelry 

(c)  Styles 

Filigree 


1 68  JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 

Repousse 

Modeling 

Engraving 

Carving 

Enameling 

Niello 

Inlaying 

Stone  Setting 

Cameo  Cutting 

B  —  Fans  and  Fancy  Bags 
I.  Fans 

(a)  Types 

Rigid 

Folding 

Collapsible 

(b)  Materials 

Gauze 

Parchment 

Feather 

Paper 

Celluloid 

Tortoise  Shell 

Ivory 

Mother-of-Pearl 

Lace  (Real  and  Imitation) 

Princess 

Duchess 

Spider  Web 

Point  Applique 

Carick-ma-Cross 

Venise 

Rose  Point 

Renaissance 


.;iii^ 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


169 


(c)  Decoration 
Lace 
Painting 
Printing 
Embroidery 
Feathers 
Carving 
Inlay 

2.  Bags 

(a)  Kinds 

Mesh 

Bead 

Crochet 

Silk  and  Velvet 

Leather 

(b)  Materials 

Gold 

Silver 

Gun-Metal 

Steel 

Brass 

White  Metal 

Silk 

Velvet 

Velveteen 

Linen 

Leather 

(c)  Decoration 

Beads 

Embroidery 

Lace 

Engraving 

Studding  with  Stones 

Enamel 

Filigree 


I70 


JEWELRY  DEPARTMENT 


C  —  Combs  and  Hair  Ornaments 

1.  Kinds 

Side 

Back 

Barrettes 

Bandeaux 

Tiaras 

Hairpins 

2.  Materials 

Tortoise  Shell 

Celluloid 

Aluminum 

Silverette  (Composition) 

Amber 

Jet 

3.  Decoration 

Pressed 

Carved 

Studded 
Rhinestones 
Bohemian  Garnets 
Imitation  Stones 

Gold  Inlaid 

Aluminum 

Gold  Bands 

Crystal  or  Claire 

Cut  Steel 

4.  Colors 

Shell 
Amber 
Black 
Gray 


Chapter  XXIV 
THE  SILVERWARE  DEPARTMENT 


Part  V — Silverware  and  Ornaments 


The  Silversmith 

The  silversmith  and  the  goldsmith  have  much  in 
common  as  fine  metal  workers.  The  crafts  are  similar 
but  the  silversmith's  work  is  on  a  larger  scale  and  he 
makes  a  different  type  of  ware.  Silver  is  as  much 
the  distinctive  metal  for  fine  tableware  as  gold  is  for 
jewelry. 

Silverwork  has  lost  much  of  its  distinction  in  the 
change  from  handwork  to  machine  and  factory  pro- 
cesses, but  the  hand-wrought  silver  is  still  regarded  as 
worth  its  greater  cost  even  as  handmade  gold  or 
platinum  jewelry  is  often  valued  for  its  workmanship 
even  more  than  for  its  valuable  materials. 

Craftsmen  skilled  in  the  making  of  silverware  are 
very  rare  in  the  United  States.  We  have  no  craft 
schools  in  this  country  which  are  capable  of  training 
silversmiths,  and  all  hand-wrought  silver  must  be  made 
by  the  small  number  of  true  craftsmen  who  have  come 

171 


172 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


SILVERWARE  DEPARTMENT 


173 


from  Europe.  Colonial  silversmiths  like  Paul  Revere 
made  their  ware  by  hand,  but  the  standards  of  our 
forefathers  are  not  good  enough  to  please  modern 
buyers,  and  the  spirit  of  craftsmanship  is  gone. 

Colonial  silver  was  simple  in  design  and  often  crude 
in  workmanship,  that  is,  it  was  not  mechanically  per- 
fect even  where  it  was  beautiful  in  shape  and  pattern. 
We  are  willing  to  sacrifice  beauty  to  perfection  in 
manufacture  but  for  the  fortunate  few  both  are 
possible. 

Divisions  of  Department 

The  divisions  of  the  Silverware  Department  are : 
Sterling  hollow-ware 
Sterling  flat-ware 
Plated  hollow-ware 
Plated  flat-ware 
Toilet  articles 
Hollow-ware  includes  plates  and  platters  as  well 
as  deeper  dishes,  while  flat-ware  is  the  term  applied 
to  knives,  forks,  spoons,  and  small  pieces  of  that  type. 


Hand-Wrought  Hollow-Ware 

The  finest  hollow-ware  is  hand-wrought.  The 
graceful  shapes  are  raised  from  flat  silver  with  only 
the  use  of  hand-tools,  even  the  hinges  being  handmade. 

Anyone  who  has  seen  a  deep  dish  lined  with  pie 


crust  knows  how  the  ball  of  dough  is  rolled  and 
stretched  until  it  takes  the  shape  of  the  dish  without 
wrinkling  or  overlapping.  The  malleable  metals  are 
treated  in  the  same  way,  but  because  of  their  greater 
stiffness  they  are  harder  to  manipulate  and  will  keep 
the  shape  into  which  they  are  forced. 

The  process  of  making  hollow-ware  from  flat  metal 
is  called  "raising."  To  raise  a  shallow  dish  the  metal 
needs  only  to  be  placed  on  a  block  of  wood  which  has 
been  hollowed  out  in  the  middle  and  then  to  be  beaten 
down  with  repeated  blows  of  a  smooth  steel  hammer 
until  it  takes  the  shape  required.  Deep  vessels  are  first 
"wrinkled,"  or  turned  up  on  all  sides  in  a  series  of 
scallops  without  attempting  to  stretch  the  metal.  Then 
the  wrinkles  are  slowly  beaten  down  and  smoothed 
out,  the  metal  stretching  upward  as  the  piece  is  held 
on  a  steel  stake  and  hammered  from  the  outside.  By 
hammering  above  the  place  where  the  stake  is  held 
against  a  vessel  it  can  be  made  narrower  at  the  top. 

Special  Tools 

For  teapots,  pitchers,  and  other  pieces  which  swell 
out  in  certain  sections,  special  tools  are  required. 

A  bellying  hammer  is  one  of  these.  It  is  curved  in 
such  a  way  that  it  can  strike  from  the  inside  wherever 
it  is  necessary  to  push  out  some  part  of  the  vessel. 

A  snarling  iron  works  in  a  different  way.     It  is  a 


174 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


SILVERWARE  DEPARTMENT 


175 


111 


tool  with  its  two  ends  bent  in  opposite  directions.  One 
end  is  held  in  a  vise  and  the  other  end  put  inside  the 
pitcher  or  teapot.  When  the  iron  is  struck  at  a  point 
about  two  inches  from  the  vise  it  springs  back  and 
the  other  end  jumps  and  gives  the  vessel  a  blow. 

For  "necking  in,"  or  making  the  curve  around  the 
necks  of  bowls  or  pitchers,  a  tee  stake  is  used.  This 
stake  has  a  curved  end  which  is  placed  in  the  vessel 
against  the  side  while  the  hammer  strikes  beyond  it,  as 
in  narrowing. 

The  lips  of  pitchers  are  formed  over  wooden  stakes 
in  which  there  are  depressions  of  the  required  shape. 

Covers  and  Mounts 

The  lid  of  a  tea  or  coffee  pot  is  made  separately, 
and  the  hinge  is  cut  from  a  heavier  sheet.  It  is  sawed 
out,  shaped,  and  soldered  on.  The  handle  and  spout 
are  each  made  in  one  piece,  which  is  curled  over  until 
the  edges  meet,  seamed  up,  shaped,  and  attached  with 
silver  solder,  or,  if  the  handle  is  of  wood,  the  sockets 
for  it  are  soldered  on. 

The  teapot  cover  rests  on  a  bezel  of  silver  wire 
soldered  onto  the  lip  near  the  top.  Sometimes  the 
cover  is  strengthened  by  another  silver  wire  just  inside 
the  edge. 

For  a  *'ring  foot"  a  heavy  wire  is  soldered  around 
the  bottom  of  the  body.    Mounts,  such  as  legs  or  balls, 


may  be  soldered  on  in  the  same  way  or  the  bottom  may 
be  left  fiat.  Pieces  are  often  made  with  a  base  or 
standard  which  curves  outward  from  beneath  the 
body.  If  there  is  a  sharp  line  or  ring  at  the  place 
where  the  outward  curve  begins,  it  has  evidently  been 
soldered  on  and  is  another  form  of  mount,  but  some- 
times it  curves  out  gradually. 

In  order  to  make  a  base  with  a  gradual  outward 
curve  from  the  body,  the  piece  is  raised  to  its  approxi- 
mate shape  and  the  bottom  is  cut  off,  or  opened.  The 
base  is  then  ^'necked  in"  and  a  new  bottom  is  soldered 
on  at  the  narrowest  part. 

When  handles,  spouts,  bottoms,  or  mounts  of  any 
kind  are  put  on  in  this  way  they  are  hammered  and 
smoothed  down  until  they  become  a  part  of  the  body, 
as  the  hard  silver  solder  is  of  practically  the  same 
material  as  the  rest  of  the  metal.^ 

Hammer  Marks 

The  marks  of  the  hammer  may  be  seen  on  the  inside 
of  handmade  silver  and  in  some  cases  show  on  the  sur- 
face, but  they  are  small  and  uneven.  Hammer  marks 
are  also  made  with  a  hammer  and  prong  on  an  inferior 
grade  of  silver,  but  they  can  be  detected  by  their  regu- 
larity and  the  fact  that  they  are  made  on  the  surface. 

Hammer  marks  are  usually  planished  from  the  sur- 

«  Hard  sUver  solder  is  two-thirds  silver  and  one-third  copper  and  zinc. 


176 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


mi 


face  with  bright  steel  hammers,  which  not  only  smooth 
the  metal  but  harden  and  toughen  it. 

Polishing 

Silver  is  burnished  with  oil  and  emery  or  pumice- 
stone  and  rouge.  Colonial  silver  was  polished  with- 
out removing  the  fire  scale,  which  is  usually  taken  off 
of  modern  silverware  by  dipping  it  in  acid.  On  some 
hand-wrought  silver,  especially  of  the  Martele  type, 
the  fire  scale  is  allowed  to  remain,  or  if  it  is  broken 
during  the  processes  of  manufacture  the  piece  is  again 
heated  until  the  scale  forms.  It  is  then  buffed  and 
polished  carefully  to  give  it  a  beautiful  dull  luster 
instead  of  the  familiar  bright  finish. 

Commercial  Hollow-Ware 

Hand-wrought  pieces  are  necessarily  costly.  In 
order  to  make  articles  on  a  commercial  scale,  silver- 
smiths must  be  able  to  reproduce  them  by  less  laborious 
methods.  The  reproductions  are  less  exclusive,  but 
almost  as  beautiful  and  quite  as  durable  as  the 
originals. 

Use  of  Dies 

Commercial  hollow-ware  is  also  raised  from  the 
flat  silver,  but  the  raising  is  done  with  steel  dies  which 
exactly  conform  to  the  shape  of  the  model.     If  the 


SILVERWARE  DEPARTMENT 


177 


'tii4 


piece  IS  undercut,  as  on  a  teapot  or  any  article  which 
has  a  neck  or  outcurving  base,  it  must  be  made  in  two 
or  more  sections  and  the  parts  soldered  together.  De- 
signs are  so  made  that  the  places  for  soldering  occur 
along  an  edge  or  are  covered  by  a  silver  wire  or  some 
kind  of  decoration  by  which  the  joint  is  invisible.  It 
is  interesting  to  study  silverware  with  a  knowledge 
of  this  necessity. 

Several  blows  of  a  stamping  die  are  needed  to  raise 
the  form  from  the  flat  sheet.  It  is  the  same  principle 
as  the  hammering,  but  much  more  force  may  be  used 
because  all  parts  of  the  metal  are  struck  at  one  time 
and  the  strain  is  distributed.  Plates  or  salvers  and 
shallow  dishes  are  stamped  out  in  this  way.  Deeper 
articles  of  hollow-ware  are  stamped  if  there  is  "mo- 
tion" in  them,  that  is,  if  they  have  fluting  or  chasing, 
or  if  the  shape  is  irregular. 

Drawing  and  Spinning 

If  they  are  rounded  or  oval-shaped  they  are  "drawn" 
by  a  hydraulic  die  and  then  "spun."  A  drawing  die 
stretches  the  metal  by  pulling  and  pushing,  instead  of 
pounding.  It  exerts  a  much  greater  pressure  than  a 
stamping  die,  but  the  pressure  is  steady  instead  of 
being  given  by  repeated  blows.  (For  description  of 
dies,  see  "House furnishings  Manual.") 

When  a  vessel  is  taken  from  the  drawing  die  it  has 

la 


178 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


!|i 


A.i 


not  its  final  form,  but  must  be  placed  on  a  "chuck" 
attached  to  a  wheel  which  turns  rapidly  round  and 
round  while  the  workman  molds  the  metal  to  the  de- 
sired form  by  the  pressure  of  steel  tools.  The  chuck 
is  composed  of  a  number  of  pieces  held  together  by  a 
central  pin.  When  this  central  piece  is  drawn  out  the 
others  fall  apart  and  can  be  removed  even  if  the  neck  of 
the  piece  is  smaller  than  its  body.  Formerly  only 
round  articles  could  be  spun,  but  the  machine  is  now 
given  a  swaying  motion  by  which  oval  shapes  can  be 
made.  Spinning  imparts  a  mellow  texture  to  the  ware, 
but  it  requires  expert  craftsmen,  while  stamping  is  a 
mechanical  process. 

Finishing  Process 

Handles,  spouts,  bezels,  legs,  and  other  mounts  must 
be  put  on  in  the  same  way  as  in  hand-wrought  silver, 
and  the  planishing  and  finishing  are  done  in  the  same 
way.  The  planishing  of  platters  and  salvers  is  so 
difficult  that  it  is  only  given  to  expert  workmen.  Cer- 
tain articles,  such  as  cream  pitchers,  are  gold-lined. 
For  fine  work  this  is  done  with  silver  gilt.  (See 
Chapter  XXV.  ^ 

Sterling  Flat-Ware — Hand  Process 

Handmade  spoons  are  either  sawn  out  of  the  flat 
metal  and  finished  with  a  hammer,  forged  from  a  bar 


SILVERWARE  DEPARTMENT 


179 


of  silver,  or  made  in  two  pieces  and  soldered  together. 

1.  For  the  first  method  the  spoon  is  cut  in  a  shape 
nearly  like  the  finished  spoon,  but  shorter,  narrower, 
and  thicker.  The  bowl  is  hammered  out  wider  on  an 
anvil,  then  the  shank  is  hammered  on  the  side  to  make 
it  thicker  and  narrower,  and  the  top  of  the  handle 
hammered  flat  like  the  bowl. 

2.  For  a  forged  spoon  the  silver  bar  is  heated  and 
hammered  into  a  rough  shape,  then  trimmed  and 
polished. 

3.  When  the  bowl  and  handle  are  made  separately 
the  sheet  from  which  the  bowl  is  cut  is  thinner  than 
that  for  the  handle.  They  are  hammered  to  shape 
with  the  top  of  the  shank  flattened  out.  This  is 
soldered  to  the  bottom  of  the  bowl  and  the  spoon  is 
then  planished  to  harden  it. 

Old  silver  spoons  often  show  where  the  handle  was 
soldered  on.  The  forged  spoon  is  the  strongest,  but 
the  soldered  spoon  is  also  strong  at  the  base  of  the 
bowl  where  there  is  the  greatest  strain. 

Handmade  forks  are  made  from  a  thicker  sheet  of 
silver  than  spoons.  The  tines  must  be  sawed  out  and 
then  shaped  and  pointed  with  the  hammer.  The 
handles  are  shaped  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  spoons, 
with  the  shank  beaten  in  on  the  side  to  make  it 
stronger. 

Butter  and  cheese  knives,  with  the  blade  pounded 


ii 


■  >'  ■ 


i8o 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


M 


{ii 


it 

41 

•■#1 


flat,  are  sometimes  made  in  one  piece  from  a  bar  of 
silver.  All  other  knives  require  an  electroplated  or  steel 
blade  and  are  therefore  made  in  two  sections.  The 
blade  is  made  with  its  base  ending  in  a  prong  and  the 
handle  is  hollowed  out  to  admit  it.  Usually  the  handle 
is  hollow  for  its  entire  length,  being  made  of  sheet 
silver  seamed  up  on  one  side.  When  the  prong  of  the 
blade  is  inserted  in  the  handle,  cement  is  poured  in  to 
secure  it  and,  if  the  handle  is  hollow,  to  give  it  weight 
and  solidity. 

Fancy  knives,  forks,  and  spoons  are  cut  and  ham- 
mered out  with  variations  of  the  simpler  methods. 

Figure  lo  shows  various  steps  in  the  making  of  a 
spoon  by  the  hand-wrought  process. 

Sterling  Flat- Ware — Commercial  Process 

For  commercial  silver  these  earlier  processes  are 
carried  out  by  machines.  The  "blank'*  is  first  cut 
out  shorter  and  thicker  than  the  finished  fork  or  spoon 
is  to  be.  It  is  then  squeezed  to  make  the  shank 
thicker,  rolled  or  "graded,"  to  distribute  the  metal 
properly,  and  clipped  with  a  die  which  gives  it  the 
outline  of  spoon  or  fork.  After  annealing  the  metal 
to  make  it  more  malleable,  the  bowl  is  stretched  or 
the  tines  pointed  and  the  handle  compressed  and 
flattened  in  the  necessary  places.  If  there  is  a  raised 
pattern  it  is  "struck  out"  at  this  time  by  the  steel  die. 


i 


CO 

.£3 

C 


c 


a 


c 
o 

B 

a 

> 

Q 


75 

o. 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


1 80 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


flat,  are  sometimes  made  in  one  piece  from  a  bar  of 
silver.  All  other  knives  require  an  electroplated  or  steel 
blade  and  are  therefore  made  in  two  sections.  The 
blade  is  made  with  its  base  ending  in  a  prong  and  the 
handle  is  hollowed  out  to  admit  it.  Usually  the  handle 
is  hollow  for  its  entire  length,  being  made  of  sheet 
silver  seamed  up  on  one  side.  When  the  prong  of  the 
blade  is  inserted  in  the  handle,  cement  is  poured  in  to 
secure  it  and,  if  the  handle  is  hollow,  to  give  it  weight 
and  solidity. 

Fancy  knives,  forks,  and  spoons  are  cut  and  ham- 
mered out  with  variations  of  the  simpler  methods. 

Figure  10  shows  various  steps  in  the  making  of  a 
spoon  by  the  hand-wrought  process. 

Sterling  Flat- Ware — Commercial  Process 

For  commercial  silver  these  earlier  processes  are 
carried  out  by  machines.  The  "blank"  is  first  cut 
out  shorter  and  thicker  than  the  finished  fork  or  spoon 
is  to  be.  It  is  then  squeezed  to  make  the  shank 
thicker,  rolled  or  "graded,"  to  distribute  the  metal 
properly,  and  clipped  with  a  die  which  gives  it  the 
outline  of  spoon  or  fork.  After  annealing  the  metal 
to  make  it  more  malleable,  the  bowl  is  stretched  or 
the  tines  pointed  and  the  handle  compressed  and 
flattened  in  the  necessary  places.  If  there  is  a  raised 
pattern  it  is  "struck  out"  at  this  time  by  the  steel  die. 


ur  I 

A 


ij 


1 »' 


SILVERWARE  DEPARTMENT 


l8l 


Piercing  is  also  done  by  machine  but  engraving  must 
be  done  by  hand. 

Silver  is  polished  with  oil  and  emery,  pumicestone, 
or  tripoli  and  finally  burnished  with  jeweler's  rouge. 

Figure  n  shows  the  steps  in  making  a  machine- 
wrought  spoon. 

Plated  Ware 

Modern  silver-plated  ware  is  all  electroplated  (see 
page  Tj).  Rolled  copper,  or  Sheffield,  plate  is  only  to 
be  found  in  old  silver.  An  imitation  of  Sheffield  is 
made  of  silver  electroplated  on  copper,  but  the  best 
base  metal  for  this  purpose  is  nickel  silver  composed  of 
nickel,  copper,  and  zinc. 

Both  hollow-ware  and  flat-ware  are  made  by  methods 
similar  to  those  used  for  sterling  silverware,  but  there 
are  many  grades  of  workmanship,  design,  and  finish. 
As  nickel  silver,  or  white  metal,  is  harder  and  less 
malleable  than  silver,  it  cannot  be  drawn  or  spun  but 
must  be  stamped  out,  and  while  it  can  be  beaten  out 
after  being  heated,  it  lacks  the  texture  and  the  sharp 
outlines  of  any  raised  patterns  on  the  softer  metal. 

The  plating  depends  upon  the  length  of  time  that 
the  article  remains  in  the  solution.  "Triple  plate"  is 
the  name  for  a  certain  thickness  of  the  silver  deposit. 
Quadruple  and  quintuple  plate  are  heavier  in  propor- 
tion to  the  surface  to  be  covered.     Reinforced,  or 


1 82 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


relaid,  silver  has  some  of  the  base  metal  removed  in 
places  which  receive  the  hardest  wear  and  the  place 
filled  in  with  silver. 

Plated  Ware  Versus  Sterling  Silver 

Good  plated  ware  of  standard  design  and  well  made 
will  last  for  years  and  is  more  satisfactory  than  thin 
sterling  silver  which  is  easily  bent  and  broken.  In- 
ferior plated  ware  is  not  worth  purchasing ;  the  coating 
of  silver  is  so  thin  that  it  lasts  a  very  short  time  and 
the  designs  are  ugly  or  badly  executed.  In  hollow- 
ware  soft  solder  is  used  where  hard  silver  solder  is 
needed  and  soon  breaks  at  an  important  joint.  So 
long  as  people  will  buy  such  "cheap  and  nasty"  goods 
they  will  be  made,  but  they  only  add  to  the  wasteful 
extravagance  of  the  purchaser  and  ruin  the  taste  of 
everyone  who  must  handle  them  either  in  factory  or 
store. 

Silverware  is  one  of  the  refinements  of  living  which 
adds  much  to  our  artistic  satisfaction  when  it  is  beauti- 
ful, but  in  cheap  imitations  there  is  far  less  attraction 
than  in  earthenware,  aluminum,  or  steel. 

Toilet  Articles 

Silver  toilet  articles  may  be  grouped  in  four 
classes ; 


a 
c 
o 
a 

c 

u 


C 


c 

6 

a 
o 

I 

Q 


W3 

a 
-t-» 

C/2 


INTENTIONAL     SECOND  EXI^OSURE 


f  J 


flfj 


m 


182 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


relaid,  silver  has  some  of  the  base  metal  removed  in 
places  which  receive  the  hardest  wear  and  the  place 
filled  in  with  silver. 

Plated  Ware  Versus  Sterling  Silver 

Good  plated  ware  of  standard  design  and  well  made 
will  last  for  years  and  is  more  satisfactory  than  thin 
sterling  silver  which  is  easily  bent  and  broken.  In- 
ferior plated  ware  is  not  worth  purchasing ;  the  coating 
of  silver  is  so  thin  that  it  lasts  a  very  short  time  and 
the  designs  are  ugly  or  badly  executed.  In  hollow- 
ware  soft  solder  is  used  where  hard  silver  solder  is 
needed  and  soon  breaks  at  an  important  joint.  So 
long  as  people  will  buy  such  "cheap  and  nasty"  goods 
they  will  be  made,  but  they  only  add  to  the  wasteful 
extravagance  of  the  purchaser  and  ruin  the  taste  of 
everyone  who  must  handle  them  either  in  factory  or 
store. 

Silverware  is  one  of  the  refinements  of  living  which 
adds  much  to  our  artistic  satisfaction  when  it  is  beauti- 
ful, but  in  cheap  imitations  there  is  far  less  attraction 
than  in  earthenware,  aluminum,  or  steel. 

Toilet  Articles 

Silver  toilet  articles  may  be  grouped  in  four 
classes : 


o 

a 

CO 

c 


c 


a 


4J 

c 

e 

a 
o 

I 

c 


a 

CO 


SILVERWARE  DEPARTMENT 


183 


Brushes,  combs,  and  mirrors 
Manicure  articles 
Bottles,   boxes,   jars,   and  trays 
Miscellaneous  equipment  and  sets 

The  making  of  brushes,  combs,  and  mirrors  is  de- 
scribed in  other  manuals.  (See  Index.)  The  silver 
backs  are  of  sheet  silver  or  plated  on  nickel  silver. 
Sterling  silver  backs  for  brushes  and  mirrors  have 
filled  handles,  not  only  to  lessen  the  cost  but  to  reduce 
the  weight.  Unless  the  handles  are  small  and  thin  they 
would  be  uncomfortably  heavy  if  made  of  a  solid 
piece  of  silver.  They  are  therefore  made  hollow  and 
seamed  up  on  the  sides,  the  top  of  the  brush  and  the 
back  being  in  one  piece  and  the  under  side  of  the 
handle  being  soldered  on  afterward.  The  brush  or 
mirror  is  set  in  the  opening  provided  for  it  and  the 
bezel  turned  down  over  the  edge. 

The  shaped  piece  of  silver  for  the  comb  is  fitted  over 
the  top  and  soldered  or  riveted  on,  but  some  sets  are 
made  with  tortoise  shell  or  ivory  dressing  combs, 
because  the  silver  is  apt  to  loosen  at  the  edge  and 
catch  the  hair.  The  silver  on  some  sterling  sets  is  so 
thin  that  the  pieces  break  at  the  point  where  the  handle 
meets  the  brush  or  mirror.  These  are  less  serviceable 
than  good  plated  ware. 

Toilet  articles  are  also  made  in  silver,  enameled  with 


i84 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


transparent  enamels  with  beautiful  engraved  patterns 
beneath  the  surface.  Real  ivory  and  tortoise  shell,  as 
well  as  gold,  are  used  in  toilet  sets  for  the  luxurious. 
"French  ivory,"  "Pyralin,"  and  other  names,  are  given 
to  a  preparation  of  celluloid  which  makes  an  excellent 
imitation  of  ivory.  Celluloid  is  also  used  to  imitate 
amber  and  tortoise  shell  (see  page  144). 

Manicure  sets  are  described  in  the  manual  on  leather 
goods.  The  silver  mountings  on  these  smaller  articles 
are  sometimes  solid  metal,  but  often  filled  and  may  be 
very  thin  and  weak. 

Shoe  horns,  button  hooks,  scissors,  and  files  are  of 
steel  mounted  in  silver  or  shoe  horns  may  be  of 
celluloid. 

Bottles  are  made  of  silver  deposit  glass  or  are 
mounted  in  silver.  Silver  deposit  is  described  in  the 
"Glassware  Manual." 

Boxes,  jars,  and  trays  of  all  kinds  and  varying  in 
beauty  and  value  from  little  pin  trays  to  elaborate 
boxes  for  jewels  may  be  found  in  this  department  with 
silver  smoking  or  lavatory  sets,  thermometers,  cane 
and  umbrella  handles,  and  other  articles  bearing  no 
relation  to  each  other  but  all  made  of  silver. 

Silver  Ornaments 

See  page  221  for  discussion  of  silver  ornaments. 


Chapter  XXV 

SHEFFIELD  PLATE 

Rolled  Silver  Plate 

Rolled  silver  plate  is  called  "Sheffield"  plate  from 
the  place  in  which  it  originated  and  where  it  was  most 
beautifully  made.  About  1742  Thomas  Bolsoner,  a 
Sheffield  mechanic,  discovered  that  silver  and  copper 
could  be  fused  together  so  that  they  would  form  one 
metal.  He  began  to  make  experiments  and  invented 
the  method  by  which  silver  plating  was  done  for  a 
hundred  years,  or  until  electroplating  took  its  place. 
Silver  plated  in  this  way  was  so  much  more  satisfactory 
and  durable  than  electroplated  ware  that  old  pieces  of 
Sheffield  command  prices  almost  equal  to  solid  silver 
and  there  are  many  modem  imitations. 

Manufacture 

While  the  manufacture  of  rolled  plate  has  died  out, 
there  is  so  much  genuine  and  imitation  Sheffield  plate 
now  on  the  market  that  everyone  should  know  how  it 
was  made. 

First  "ingots,"  or  brick-shaped  blocks  of  copper, 
were  cast  in  molds.  To  prepare  an  ingot  for  plating, 
the  top  was  filed  or  planed  off  until  it  was  perfectly 

185 


i86 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


smooth.  A  thin  sheet  of  silver  slightly  smaller  than 
the  face  of  the  ingot  was  then  prepared  and  the  sur- 
faces of  the  copper  and  the  silver  were  carefully 
cleaned.  Then  the  silver  sheet  was  placed  on  the  cop- 
per, a  piece  of  iron  called  a  "bedder"  was  laid  on  top, 
and  the  ingot  put  on  an  anvil  and  hammered  with  a 
heavy  hammer  until  the  silver  was  bedded  in  the  cop- 
per, touching  it  at  every  point. 

A  piece  of  sheet  copper  was  then  coated  with  whiting 
and  laid  on  the  silver  and  strong  wire  was  wrapped 
tightly  around  to  bind  them  together.  A  solution  of 
borax  was  run  around  the  edge  of  the  silver  to  act  as 
a  flux  and  the  ingot  put  into  a  stove  heated  with  coke. 

The  door  of  the  stove  had  a  small  hole  in  it  through 
which  the  block  could  be  seen  by  the  plater.  When  a 
bright  line  appeared  on  the  edge  of  the  upper  plate 
the  ingot  was  carefully  removed  and  allowed  to  cool 
gradually  until  the  silver  had  set.  If  the  copper  was 
to  be  double-plated  the  same  process  was  repeated  for 
the  other  side  of  the  ingot. 

Finally,  whether  plated  on  one  or  both  sides,  it  was 
taken  to  be  rolled  between  two  smooth,  heavy  rollers 
until  it  was  the  thickness  required  for  the  articles  to  be 
made  from  it. 

Making  of  Sheffield  Hollow-Ware 

The  sheet  metal  was  then  cut  to  the  proper  size 


SHEFFIELD  PLATE 


187 


and  the  ends  were  dovetailed  into  each  other  and 
joined  with  soft  solder,  making  a  cylinder.  The  seam 
was  hammered  so  that  it  was  perfectly  flat  and  almost 
invisible.  In  order  to  round  or  * 'belly  out,"  the  shape 
of  the  article,  the  cylinder  was  hammered  from  the 
inside  with  a  weighted  horn  mallet.  It  was  then  put 
on  a  steel  stake  and  hammered  all  over  from  the  out- 
side to  make  it  smooth.  For  the  final  smoothing  a 
piece  of  cloth  was  put  on  the  stake  and  a  fine  steel 
facing  strapped  to  the  hammer. 

The  spouts  of  tea  and  coffee  pots  were  shaped  in 
the  same  way,  and  these  were  dovetailed  and  soldered 
in.  If  the  piece  had  a  flat  bottom  this  was  fitted  in, 
dovetailed  and  soldered. 

The  mounts  were  stamped  out  of  thin  solid  silver, 
filled  with  soft  solder  and  bent  to  the  proper  shape. 
The  article  was  painted  with  whiting  around  the  place 
where  the  mount  was  to  be  attached  and  was  then 
heated  and  the  mounts  pressed  against  it  with  cork 
until  the  solder  in  them  melted  just  enough  to  adhere 
to  the  surface  of  the  article.  If  allowed  to  melt  too 
much  the  solder  would  run  out. 

When  cool  the  whiting  was  washed  off  and  the 
piece  was  ready  for  the  silver  edges.  Some  of  these 
were  simple  silver  wire  drawn  through  a  plate  which 
bent  it  over  on  each  side.  It  just  covered  the  cut  edge 
to  which  it  was  attached  with  solder.     Other  edges 


i88 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


were  cut  out  of  thin  silver  with  dies  and  filled  with 
soft  solder,  and  still  others  were  fluted  or  ornamented 
with  designs  in  high  relief.  These  were  hammered  and 
filed  down  to  the  body  of  the  article  in  such  a  way 
that  sometimes  it  was  almost  impossible  to  see  the 
point  where  the  joint  was  made. 

Decoration 

Piercing  was  often  done  by  hand.  If  done  by  ma- 
chine the  edges  were  jagged  or  rough,  needing  to  be 
filed  and  smoothed. 

Engraving  was  done  lightly  in  order  that  the  silver 
might  not  be  entirely  cut  away  from  the  copper 
foundation. 

The  final  process  was  burnishing  which  was  done 
with  polished  steel  instruments. 

The  insides  of  coffee  and  tea  pots  and  the  bottom  of 
trays  or  stands  were  often  tinned  instead  of  being 
silver-plated.  The  surface  was  cleaned  with  acid  and 
sprinkled  with  sal  ammoniac.  Melted  tin  was  then 
poured  over  it  and  wiped  off  with  cotton  waste. 

The  inner  surfaces  of  sugar  bowls  and  cream  jugs, 
snuff  boxes,  and  other  articles  were  gilded.  Pure  gold 
was  melted  with  mercury  ( i  part  gold  to  5  of  mercury) 
in  an  iron  ladle  which  has  been  coated  inside  with 
whiting.  When  the  gold  and  mercury  had  united,  the 
amalgam  was  poured  into  cold  water  forming  a  paste 


SHEFFIELD  PLATE 


189 


which  was  put  into  a  leather  bag.  Part  of  the  mercury 
escaped  through  the  pores  of  the  leather,  leaving  the 
soft  gold  with  a  small  amount  of  mercury  behind. 
The  article  to  be  gilded  was  painted  with  nitrate  of 
mercury  and  then  with  the  gold  amalgam  and  laid, 
gilded  side  up,  in  a  pan  over  a  coke  fire  until  the 
mercury  evaporated  and  left  a  beautiful  gold-plated 
surface. 

Design 

The  designs  of  Sheffield  plate  vary  from  the  very 
simple  to  the  ornate  and  florid.  They  were  copies  of 
designs  in  solid  silver  with  certain  characteristics,  like 
the  wire  and  beaded  edges,  which  resulted  from  their 
particular  necessities  of  manufacture. 

Modem  Sheffield 

Sheffield  plate  was  manufactured  in  large  quantities 
for  over  a  hundred  years  and,  unlike  electroplated  ware, 
it  is  very  durable.  For  this  reason  it  can  still  be 
obtained  by  those  who  are  willing  to  hunt  for  it  in 
antique  shops  and  is  sometimes  for  sale  in  jewelry 
departments. 

It  is  prized  by  those  who  appreciate  good  solid 
workmanship  and  do  not  wish  the  expense  and  care  of 
solid  silver.  This  popularity  has  caused  dealers  to 
advertise  '^Sheffield"  plate,  which  is  merely  an  electro- 


I90 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


plated  imitation.  There  is  some  electroplated  copper, 
but  it  is  not  rolled  plate  and  is  not  very  satisfactory. 
Nickel,  or  white  metal,  is  a  far  better  base  for 
electroplating. 

Imitations  of  Sheffield. 

Modern  Sheffield,  therefore,  is  only  electroplated 
ware  in  Sheffield  designs.  It  may  be  excellent  plated 
ware  but  it  differs  from  the  old  Sheffield  in  a  number 
of  ways. 

1.  There  is  far  less  silver  on  it.  Even  quadruple 
plate  is  thinner  than  the  sheet  of  silver  on  the  rolled 
copper. 

2.  It  is  made  by  machine  processes  and  therefore 
lacks  the  individuality  and  finish  of  the  hand-wrought 
article. 

3.  Nickel  is  a  less  malleable  metal  than  silver  or 
copper  and  its  rigid  hardness  affects  the  texture  of  the 
finished  piece.  Gold,  silver,  copper,  aluminum,  and 
wrought  iron,  which  can  be  hammered  or  drawn  into 
shape,  are  not  only  tougher  than  cast  metal  but  have 
a  distinctive  quality  about  them  which  is  very  clear  to 
the  trained  eye  and  hand,  though  hard  to  define. 

Solid  silver  is  still  costly.  Thin  or  filled  silverware 
is  easily  bent  and  broken  and  more  substantial  pieces 
are  beyond  the  reach  of  the  average  purse.  Their  in- 
trinsic value  makes  them  also  a  serious  responsibility. 


SHEFFIELD  PLATE 


191 


Many  a  family  keeps  its  solid  silver  with  its  jewels  at 
the  bank,  only  taking  it  out  on  state  occasions. 

Between  the  costly  sterling  silver  and  electroplated 
ware,  Sheffield  plate  would  have  a  place.  Because  of  the 
handwork  and  the  greater  amount  of  silver  used,  it 
is  more  expensive  than  the  best  quality  of  electroplate, 
but  it  is  far  less  costly  than  solid  silver  and,  if  it  were 
now  being  made,  it  would  lose  its  "collector's"  value. 

Fortunately  the  old  designs  and  dies  are  still  in 
existence  stored  away  and  awaiting  the  time  when  there 
shall  be  sufficient  demand  for  this  substantial  and 
beautiful  ware  to  put  it  again  on  the  market. 

Pewter 

Before  the  discovery  of  methods  by  which  silver 
could  be  plated,  tableware  for  all  but  the  very  rich 
was  made  largely  of  pewter.  This  was  an  alloy  com- 
posed chiefly  of  tin  combined  with  different  quantities 
of  lead  or  brass  and  sometimes  small  amounts  of  bis- 
muth or  antimony.  Pewter  vessels  were  made  by 
hammering,  casting,  or  spinning,  and  were  sometimes 
of  excellent  designs.  The  first  mention  of  pewter  was 
in  1074  and  it  continued  to  be  used  until  the  early  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  its  great  vogue  had 
declined  some  time  before  and  the  patterns  were  less 
suitable,  being  imitations  of  silverware. 

The  recent  demand  for  pewter  has  been  the  occasion 


192 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


of  a  revival  of  its  manufacture,  first  to  supply 
"antiques,"  and  afterwards  as  a  frankly  modern  com- 
mercial product.  The  best  pewter  was  made  in 
England  where  the  modern  ware  is  now  manufactured. 


Chapter  XXVI 
HISTORY  OF  SILVERWARE  DESIGNS 

Early  Silverware 

Complete  table  services  of  silver  were  used  by 
wealthy  Romans.  In  the  British  Museum  is  a  Roman 
vessel  of  silver  inlaid  with  gold,  and  small  articles  have 
been  unearthed  in  Britain  which  date  from  the  Roman 
occupation. 

The  Irish  used  silver  for  chalices  and  church  orna- 
ments during  the  Gothic  period,  and  on  the  Continent 
it  was  more  used  in  churches  than  in  homes. 

During  the  Renaissance  silver  was  very  elaborate. 
The  forms  were  classic,  reproducing  Greek  models, 
but  they  were  covered  with  scrolls  and  finely  modelled 
figures.  The  early  Florentine  patterns  were  artistic 
and  not  overelaborate,  but  later  work  was  too  much 
ornamented. 

Period  Silver 

"Period"  silver  is  commonly  associated  with  France 

and  England. 

Louis  XIV  of  France  was  influenced  by  the  Renais- 
sance, but  the  art  of  his  time  was  essentially  French. 

13  193 


194 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


Everything  was  massive  with  heavy  but  stately  decora- 
tion. The  silverware  like  the  furniture  was  imposing 
rather  than  graceful.  Characteristic  decorations  were 
garlands  and  masks. 

Louis  XV  brought  in  a  freer  style  which  soon 
became  lawless  and  wandering.  The  stately  columns 
and  garlands  of  the  former  period  were  replaced  by 
shells,  palm  branches,  and  fantastic  borders.  Patterns 
were  unsymmetrical  and  ornament  "dissolved  in 
curves." 

With  Louis  XVI  came  a  return  to  simpler  and  more 
classic  forms.  Shapes  were  again  symmetrical  and 
the  decoration  graceful  but  dignified.  Garlands  and 
bow  knots  were  used  with  cupids  and  cherub's  heads, 
while  laurel  and  ribbon  were  found  in  the  borders. 
The  ornaments  were  treated  with  great  refinement  and 
delicacy. 

The  Jacoheaft  period  in  England  was  about  the  same 
time  as  the  Florentine  in  Italy,  but  the  influence  of  the 
Renaissance  was  not  so  strong.  The  forms  were  rather 
heavy  though  well  proportioned.  Geometrical  designs 
with  shields  and  panels  were  combined  with  masks  and 
scrolls.  The  edges  were  often  undecorated.  The  go- 
droon  edge  was  most  common. 

The  Early  Georgian  period  was  about  the  time  of 
Louis  XV.  Some  of. the  plainer  shapes  of  the  reign 
of   Queen  Anne   were  made,   but   the   ruling   styles 


SILVERWARE  DESIGNS 


195 


resembled  the  French  designs  of  that  time.  Elaborate 
decorations  were  combined  with  simple  godroon 
borders  and  the  shapes  were  exaggerated  and  un- 
symmetrical, though  not  so  lawless  as  the  French. 

The  Middle  Georgian  period  was  a  return  to  the 
classic,  with  urn  and  vase  forms  and  engraving  or  flat 
chasing  instead  of  repousse  work  in  the  decoration. 
The  edges  or  moldings  were  bead  or  thread  instead  of 
curves  and  high  relief.  It  was  the  Adam  period  in 
furniture  and  decoration  and  much  influenced  by  a 
study  of  Grecian  and  Roman  art. 

The  Late  Georgian  period  was  heavier  and  less 
refined  than  the  preceding  one.  Decoration  was  again 
in  relief,  the  grapevine  being  much  used  for  borders, 
which  were  made  of  cast  metal  applied  with  solder. 
Fluting  was  also  used  and  flowers  and  shells  in  raised 
patterns. 

The  Colonial  period  in  America  showed  the  influence 
of  the  Middle  Georgian  in  England.  Some  silver  of 
that  period  was  without  any  decoration,  depending  for 
its  beauty  entirely  on  the  simple,  graceful  forms.  When 
decoration  was  used  it  was  either  engraving  or  flat 
chasing  in  bands,  wreaths,  or  other  symmetrical 
designs. 

Modem  Designs 
During  the  past  century  many  attempts  have  been 


196 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


made  to  create  new  designs  in  handicrafts  instead  of 
copying  those  of  former  periods.  They  have  been 
successful  to  a  certain  extent.  When  the  modern 
sflversmith  makes  a  Louis  XVI  or  Jacobean  or 
Georgian  design  he  does  not  slavishly  copy  but  works 
out  patterns  which  will  be  of  the  same  order  as  the 
furniture  and  decorations  of  that  period,  but  may  be 
quite  original  in  subject  and  treatment. 

Certain  patterns  are  duplications  or  very  slightly 
modified  copies,  such  as  the  Buckingham  or  the  King 
George  in  flat  silver;  others  only  suggest  their  earlier 
models. 

Figure  12  shows  a  modified  colonial  pattern  with 
Greek  fretwork  border  and  medallions  of  the  Adam 
type. 

As  a  new  type  of  silverware  in  the  modern  art 
spirit  we  may  mention  the  Martele  pattern  designed 
for  one  of  our  great  silversmiths.  It  is  unconven- 
tional yet  not  so  florid  or  extravagant  as  the  Louis 
XV  period  and  suggests  in  silver  the  flowing  line, 
melting  curves,  and  ethereal  quality  of  art  pottery. 
In  this  ware  the  fire  scale  has  been  retained  and  adds 
to  the  beauty  of  form  and  natural  design  a  soft,  dull 
texture  as  different  from  bright  silver  as  the  luster  of 
the  pearl  is  different  from  the  brilliancy  of  the 
diamond. 


V 


to 

0) 


C 

U 

o 


o 

o 
U 
u 

I 

C/2 


r< 


INTENTIONAL     SECOND  EXPOSURE 


196 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


made  to  create  new  designs  in  handicrafts  instead  of 
copying  those  of  former  periods.  They  have  been 
successful  to  a  certain  extent.  When  the  modern 
silversmith  makes  a  Louis  XVI  or  Jacobean  or 
Georgian  design  he  does  not  slavishly  copy  but  works 
out  patterns  which  will  be  of  the  same  order  as  the 
furniture  and  decorations  of  that  period,  but  may  be 
quite  original  in  subject  and  treatment. 

Certain  patterns  are  duplications  or  very  slightly 
modified  copies,  such  as  the  Buckingham  or  the  King 
George  in  flat  silver;  others  only  suggest  their  earlier 
models. 

Figure  12  shows  a  modified  colonial  pattern  with 
Greek  fretwork  border  and  medallions  of  the  Adam 
type. 

As  a  new  type  of  silverware  in  the  modern  art 
spirit  we  may  mention  the  Mar  tele  pattern  designed 
for  one  of  our  great  silversmiths.  It  is  unconven- 
tional yet  not  so  florid  or  extravagant  as  the  Louis 
XV  period  and  suggests  in  silver  the  flowing  line, 
melting  curves,  and  ethereal  quality  of  art  pottery. 
In  this  ware  the  fire  scale  has  been  retained  and  adds 
to  the  beauty  of  form  and  natural  design  a  soft,  dull 
texture  as  diflFerent  from  bright  silver  as  the  luster  of 
the  pearl  is  different  from  the  brilliancy  of  the 
diamond. 


1 


}    " 


SILVERWARE  DESIGNS 


197 


Good  Design  in  Silverware 

Silver  is  a  beautiful  material  and  the  ware  made 
from  it  should  be  beautiful,  whether  it  is  intended  for 
practical  use  or  for  ornament.  It  may  be  said  of 
silverware  as  of  jewelry  that  a  small  number  of  fine 
pieces  are  far  better  than  a  quantity  of  cheap  or 
tawdry  ones. 

Nor  is  it  a  question  of  cost  alone.  Real  gems  or 
sterling  silver  may  be  found  in  pieces  so  badly  de- 
signed that  they  appeal  to  no  motive  except  the  love  of 
display,  while  far  less  expensive  ornaments  and  plated 
ware  may  be  truly  artistic  and  suitable. 

In  silverware  the  form,  decoration,  and  construction 
should  not  only  be  good  but  should  be  considered  with 
reference  to — 

The  material  from  which  the  article  is  made. 
The  use  for  which  it  is  designed. 
Its  suitability  to  the  owner's  other  possessions 
and  manner  of  living. 

Silver  hollow-ware  consists  of  vessels  which  are 
intended  to  hold  food  or  drink  and  it  should  be  suited 
to  that  purpose. 

The  basic  forms  date  back  to  such  natural  models 
as  the  hollow  hand,  the  tgg,  the  hardened  husks  of 
fruits,  nuts,  and  gourds,  sea  shells,  and  the  horns  of 
animals.     Egg  shapes,  shells,  and  horns  may  often  be 


#1 


198 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


seen  in  simple  or  highly  decorated  forms  of  pottery 

or  metal. 

The  shapes  of  vessels  were  also  determined  by  primi- 
tive methods  of  manufacture.  The  oval  or  spherical 
shapes  were  determined  by  the  motion  of  the  potter's 
wheel  or  the  spinning  of  metals  on  early  lathes. 

It  is  interesting  to  trace  these  suggestions  of  natural 
forms  and  hand-processes  in  the  teapots  or  pitchers  of 
a  modern  silver  service  and  to  realize  how  often  our 
pleasure   in   certain   shapes  is   due   to  these   familiar 

associations. 

In  order  to  give  us  permanent  pleasure  a  vessel  must 
have  the  right  proportions  and  good  "lines."  Many 
illustrations  would  be  required  to  show  why  the  out- 
lines of  some  vessels  are  heavy  and  coarse,  while  others 
are  graceful  and  charming.  The  only  way  to  train 
one's  taste  in  these  matters  is  to  study  good  models  and 
compare  the  ones  in  question  with  them,  trying  to  see 
wherein  they  differ.  The  Greeks  were  masters  of  form. 
Their  vases,  bowls,  and  urns  were  so  perfect  in  outline 
that  they  have  become  the  standards  of  the  world. 

Decoration 

Many  vessels  of  good  or  at  least  inoffensive  shapes 
are  spoiled  by  their  decorations.  The  same  principles 
apply  as  those  outlined  in  Chapter  XV  on  jewelry  de- 
sign, but,  as  silverware  is  for  practical  use  and  not 


SILVERWARE  DESIGNS 


199 


I 


\ 


merely  for  ornament  the  decoration  should  show  re- 
straint and  simplicity  rather  than  extravagant  or  fan- 
ciful patterns.  The  period  patterns  to  which  we  have 
referred  were  often  beautiful  but  not  always  suitable 

to  the  purpose. 

For  a  home  of  taste  and  refinement  but  without 
ostentation  the  patterns  designed  for  French  kings  and 
princes  is  most  inappropriate. 

Colonial  patterns  are  usually  good  because  they  are 
simple,  but  the  more  florid  styles  are  often  modified  so 
that  they  lose  the  effect  of  elaborate  and  unsuitable 

decoration. 

Good  workmanship  should  be  demanded  of  every 
article  of  this  kind.  Silverware  is  not  bought  like  a 
hat  for  one  season's  wear.  It  should  be  of  such  material 
and  so  well  made  that  it  will  last  for  years,  if  not  for  a 
lifetime.  Vessels  should  have  firm  handles  and  spouts. 
Teapots  and  pitchers  should  pour  easily.  Standing 
vessels  should  stand  firmly,  and  the  mounts  should  not 

come  off. 

In  flatware  the  shanks  of  spoons  and  forks  should  be 
solid  and  not  bend  under  ordinary  pressure.  The 
shapes  of  bowls,  of  tines  and  handles  should  be  those 
which  give  the  greatest  ease  and  satisfaction  in  practical 

use. 

V^hen  these  requirements  have  been  met,  we  should 
then  ask  for  beauty  of  form,  finish,  and  decoration. 


CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES 


201 


i|; 


Chapter  XXVII 

CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES 

Classes  of  Clocks 

Clocks  and  watches  comprise  a  large  and  important 
division  of  art  merchandise,  their  first  object  being 
utility  rather  than  decoration.  Clocks  vary  in  size  from 
one  that  may  be  set  in  the  top  of  a  stamp  box  to  the 
giant  clock  in  the  Metropolitan  Tower,  New  York 
City.  Watches  have  been  made  small  enough  to  be 
covered  by  a  silver  dime,  yet  some  of  the  watches  of 
our  ancestors  were  as  large  as  an  Oregon  apple  and 
almost  the  same  shape. 

The  clocks  found  in  a  jewelry  department  do  not 
include  town  clocks,  which  are  built  to  order,  or  even 
office  and  school  clocks,  which  are  usually  purchased 
of  the  maker  or  his  agent.  They  are  clocks  for  the 
home  or  for  individual  use  and  comprise : 

Standing  or  grandfather  clocks 

Wall  clocks 

Shelf  or  mantel  clocks 

Table  and  desk  clocks 

Traveling  clocks 

Clock  Parts 

The  parts  of  all  clocks  are  very  similar  in  design  but 

200 


differ  in  size,  material,  and  workmanship.    They  con- 
sist of  a  case  containing : 

1.  A  train  of  wheels  moved  by  a  weight  or  spring. 

2.  An  escapement,  to  control  speed. 

3.  A  pendulum,  to  govern  the  time. 

4.  A  dial  marked  with  hours,  minutes,  and  some- 

times seconds.  Around  this  dial  turn  the  two 
(or  three)  hands  which  are  connected  with 
the  train  of  wheels. 

5.  Striking  machinery  (not  always  present). 

A  watch  differs  from  a  clock  in  being  governed  en- 
tirely by  springs  and  having  no  pendulum.  The  move- 
ments of  some  traveling  clocks  and  of  many  table  and 
desk  clocks  are  really  watch  movements  set  in  the 
clock  case.  In  others  the  clock  movement  approaches 
that  of  a  watch.  Only  a  trained  mechanic  should  work 
with  the  machinery  of  clocks,  but  everyone  should  have 
some  knowledge  of  their  construction,  treatment,  and 
care. 

Standing  or  Grandfather  Clocks 

Tall  or  grandfather  clocks  are  often  controlled  by 
weights  which  are  drawn  up  when  the  clock  is  wound 
and  gradually  fall  as  it  runs  down.  Some  clocks  of 
this  type  have  a  spring  instead  of  weights  and  the 
spring  is  wound  up  with  a  key.    As  the  weights  fall  or 


s 

U  i 


"•  i 


202 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


the  spring  is  unwound  the  train  of  wheels  is  set  in 
motion  and  this  motion  is  communicated  to  the  hands 
and  the  face  of  the  clock. 

The  minute  hand  is  attached  to  a  wheel  which  re- 
volves once  every  hour.  The  hour  hand  rides  on  a 
hollow  axis  outside  the  minute  hand  and  is  attached  to 
a  wheel  revolving  once  in  twelve  hours. 

The  weight  attached  to  the  wheels  would  tend  to 
fall  faster  and  faster  as  it  went  down,  or  if  the  clock 
has  a  spring  it  would  unwind  irregularly,  if  the  speed 
were  not  controlled  by  pallets,  which  slip  into  the  teeth 
on  the  edge  of  a  governing  wheel,  called  an  "escape 
wheel,"  and  govern  its  motion.  The  movement  of 
these  pallets  is  regulated  by  the  swing  of  the  pendulum 
and  their  form  and  action  is  called  the  "escapement"  of 
the  clock  because  their  points  enter  and  escape  from 
the  teeth  of  the  escape  wheel.  The  pallets  are  set  in 
motion  by  the  clock  machinery  and  keep  the  pendulum 
going  by  a  slight  impulse,  but  the  pendulum  swing  is 
due  to  the  steady  pull  of  the  force  of  gravity,  the  up- 
ward pull  of  the  machinery  being  just  enough  to  bring 
it  back  to  the  end  of  the  arc  so  that  the  fall  is  always 
the  same. 

Pendulums 

The  pendulums  of  these  clocks  are  long  rods  hung 
on  a  steel  spring  with  a  bob  near  the  lower  end  con- 


CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES 


203 


sisting  of  either  a  flat  disc  or  a  cylinder.  The  pendulum 
swings  back  and  forth  with  a  regular,  rhythmic  motion 
when  the  clock  is  in  "beat."  If  the  motion  is  irregular, 
one  beat  longer  than  another,  or  if  a  beat  seems  at  times 
to  be  lost,  there  is  something  wrong  with  the  clock. 

The  time  occupied  by  each  beat  varies  according  to 
the  length  of  the  pendulum  measured  from  the  point 
where  it  is  attached  to  the  spring  to  about  the  center  of 
the  bob.  A  pendulum  39. 14  inches  long  makes  one  beat 
a  second,  while  a  pendulum  9.8  inches  long  makes  two 
beats  each  second.  The  first  is  called  a  "seconds" 
pendulum.  One  reason  that  these  tall  clocks  keep  such 
good  time  is  that  the  beat  of  the  long  pendulum  is 
more  even  than  that  of  shorter  ones. 

Compensating  Pendulums 

Since  the  length  of  a  pendulum  determines  the  time 
of  its  beat,  a  clock's  regularity  is  affected  by  heat  and 
cold.  Heat  expands  metals  and  therefore  makes  the 
pendulum  longer,  while  cold,  which  contracts  metals, 
makes  it  shorter.  The  difference  in  length  is  too  small 
to  be  seen  by  the  eye  and  almost  too  small  to  measure 
but  a  very  tiny  difference  in  the  length  of  each  beat 
will  make  a  clock  gain  or  lose  several  minutes  in  the 
course  of  a  week. 

Compensating  pendulums  are  those  in  which  the 
expansion  and  contraction  are  counteracted  and  the  beat 


204  SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 

kept  regular.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  length 
is  not  the  fuU  length  of  the  rod  but  only  the  distance  to 
the  center  of  gravity  or  weight  on  the  rod  This  is 
usually  about  the  center  of  the  bob.  but  it  can  be  shifted 
to  a  place  below  the  center  when  it  is  necessary  to 
lengthen  the  pendulum,  or  above  the  center  to  shorten  it. 
The  customary  pendulums  of  this  type  are  as 
follows : 

1  The  gridiron  pendulum,  has  for  its  bob  a  series  of 
o  alternating  steel  and  brass  rods  suspended  m  such  a 
way  that  if  the  contraction  of  the  steel  rods  pulls  the 
center  of  gravity  up.  the  brass  will  pull  it  down  an  equal 

amount.  .  •  .  t,..» 

2  The  mercury  pendulum,  is  the  most  expensive  but 

the  most  reliable.  The  mercury  is  carried  in  glass 
vessels  or  in  a  cast  iron  jar  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
pendulum  and  by  its  weight  and  extreme  contract.bihty 
compensates  for  the  contraction  of  a  long  steel  rod. 
TThe  wooden  pendulum  has  a  lead  bob  which  rests 
loosely  on  a  nut  at  the  lower  end.  Wood  expands  and 
contracts  much  less  than  metal  and  the  lead  bob  ex- 
pands upward  enough  to  compensate  for  this  expansion 

of  the  wood  downward. 

4  The  zinc  and  iron  pendulum  consists  of  two  tubes 
on  the  pendulum  rod.  The  inner  tube  is  oiz^ncM 
^sts  on  the  nut  at  the  lower  end  of  the  rod  and  slides 


CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES 


205 


freely  up  and  down.  The  outer  tube  is  of  iron  and 
has  its  weight  suspended  from  a  projection  or  collar 
on  the  top  of  the  zinc  tube.  The  lead  bob  is  attached 
to  this  iron  tube.  As  the  iron  rod  and  outer  tube  ex- 
pand downward  the  zinc  expands  upward  nearly  twice 
as  much,  compensating  for  both  of  them. 

Grandfather  clocks  do  not  all  have  compensating 
pendulums,  but  the  long  thin  wire  and  heavy  bob  makes 
their  variation  exceedingly  small. 

Striking  Mechanism 

The  simplest  striking  machinery  consists  of  a  bell 
and  a  hammer  which  is  moved  by  a  spring.  The  spring 
in  its  turn  is  released  at  certain  times  by  the  action  of 
the  time-keeping  machinery.  In  modern  clocks  the 
striking  machinery  is  wound  separately  and  chime 
clocks  have  an  extra  train  of  wheels.  Alarm  clocks  are 
set  to  ring  at  a  certain  hour  but  the  hammer  may  be 
prevented  from  striking. 

Clock  Materials 

Clock  machinery  is  nearly  always  of  brass.  The 
dials  are  of  polished  brass  on  which  the  figures  are 
engraved  and  filled  in  with  sealing  wax,  after  which 
they  are  "silvered,''  or  painted  with  a  thin  coat  of 
nitrate  of  silver.  On  illuminated  dials  the  numbers 
and  hands  are  painted  with  a  special  paint  containing 


206  SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 

.  form  of  radium  which  enables  the  time  to  be  read  in 
hf  dTrk     The  hands  are  of  steel,  sometm.es  beaut- 
fuUy  pierced  and  "blued"  by  tempermg  with  heat. 

V.nZ  cases  are  of  wood  or  of  wo^  ^d  ^as. 

clocks  -^ -^^!  ^"'^^f  ;f  ;Ls  which  compose  the 
ing  together  the  plates  ot  g  ^^^  ^.^^^^ 

Lner  ornam^ents  <^^  ^^^' :i:-:t^:i^r-.n. 

Solid  --VtlTtoT  Ti^a     -^^^^^  -'  '"^'^"^^"^ 
slightly  toward  the  top.     i  ney  die  .7 

or  of  wood  stained  to  look  like  mahogany.    Black  oak 

is  also  used. 

Wall  Clocks  ^^,^. 

r-  "J  r  Sd  ort^f  dock.  ,i*  .>«ir 
"">■  rf 'hU,  Sfigures  which  en  be  Men  at  . 

partment.  Cwitzerland  and  also  in 

Cuckoo  clocks  are  made  m  bwitzenanu 


CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES 


207 


Germany.  They  are  of  wood  fancifully  carved  to  look 
like  a  Swiss  chalet  and  are  wound  with  weights.  The 
works  are  of  wood.  On  the  hours  and  half-hours  a 
little  door  flies  open  and  a  wooden  cuckoo  is  seen  while 
the  clock  makes  a  sound  supposed  to  resemble  the 
cuckoo's  note. 

Regulators 

Regulators  are  clocks  which  have  been  constructed 
very  carefully  to  ensure  accuracy.  They  are  used  in 
observatories  and  other  places  where  accuracy  is  essen- 
tial and  for  "master"  clocks  which  control  other  time- 
pieces by  electrical  connections.  They  have  mercurial 
seconds  pendulums.  Regulators  may  be  either  sUnding 
or  wall  clocks. 

Mantel  Clocks 

Mantel  clocks  are  found  with  pendulums  and  without 
them  Those  without  pendulums  are  regulated  with 
levers  Many  of  the  best  mantel  clocks  are  made  m 
France.  Some  are  very  elaborate.  The  dials  are  beauti- 
fully enameled  and  the  hands  gilded.  The  cases  most 
often  seen  have  a  brass  framework  and  glass  sides  with 
perfectly  simple  but  well-proportioned  and  satisfactory 
lines.  Since  the  war  these  clocks  are  very  hard  to 
obtain.  An  American  clock  of  similar  appearance  has 
taken  their  place. 


208 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


Ornamental  mantel  clocks  may  have  good  movements 
but  they  frequently  do  not.  The  French  ornamental 
clocks  have  excellent  works  as  well  as  elaborate  cases, 
but  the  American  imitations  are  not  of  the  same  type 
inside.  They  may  be  ornamental  but  they  are  not  very 
useful.  The  cases  are  made  of  marble,  onyx,  alabaster, 
malechite,  porcelain,  ormolu,  and  bronze,  sometimes 
plated  with  silver  or  gold  but  usually  decorated  with 
ormolu  trimmings. 

A  three-piece  mantel  set  consists  of  a  clock  and  two 
vases,  or  a  clock  and  two  candlesticks  to  match. 

Whatever  the  style  of  the  clock  case,'  a  pendulum 
clock  is  more  reliable  than  a  lever  clock  and  is  more 

easily  regulated. 

Electric  clocks  have  a  pendulum  consisting  of  a  steel 
rod  with  two  bobs  attached  to  a  cross-piece  at  the 
lower  end.  These  bobs  swing  with  a  circular  motion 
instead  of  back  and  forth.  The  pendulum  is  controlled 
by  an  electric  battery. 

Table  and  Desk  Clocks 

These  are  smaller  in  size  than  mantel  clocks,  some 
of  them  exceedingly  small.  There  are  inexpensive  ones 
intended  for  service  and  highly  ornamental  fanciful 

ones. 

The  easel  clock  has  a  small  case  enclosing  its  works 
set  in  a  sort  of  frame  of  silver,  gilt,  tortoise  shell,  or 


CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES 


209 


enamel,  and  tipped  back  with  a  support  similar  to^those 
on  standing  photograph  frames. 

Fanciful  little  clocks  are  set  in  the  top  of  stamp  boxes 
and  in  other  odd  ways.  Desk  clocks  are  made  to  match 
the  other  fittings  of  the  desk  set — ^brass,  silver,  enamel, 
celluloid,  or  leather,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Traveling  Clocks 

Traveling  clocks  have  hair-springs  instead  of  pen- 
dulums, so  that  they  may  be  carried  in  any  position. 
Some  are  small  French  clocks  of  glass  and  burnished  or 
gilded  brass,  plain  but  with  very  fine  works  which  make 
them  costly.  These  are  imitated  in  an  American  clock 
of  the  same  general  appearance  but  very  different  con- 
struction. The  movements  differ  but  little  from  those 
of  watches.  Others  are  really  watches  set  in  a  three- 
leafed  case.  They  are  quite  flat  when  the  case  is  closed 
and  when  it  is  open  they  are  supported,  easel- fashion, 
by  one  side  of  the  case  and  the  inside  leaf.  They  are 
made  of  the  same  material  as  easel  clocks  and  many  of 
them  are  very  elaborate. 


Watch^ 

A  watch  movement  is  too  intricate  to  describe  in  a 
manual  of  this  kind.  Not  only  does  a  spring  take  the 
place  of  a  pendulum  but  the  machinery  is  more  com- 
plicated than  clock  machinery. 


Z4 


210 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


Watch  cases  are  made  of  gold,  silver,  platinum,  and 
gunmetal.  The  gold  cases  may  be  i8  or  14  karat  gold, 
gold  filled,  or  guaranteed  plate.  The  cases  are  deco- 
rated with  enamel  in  many  forms  and  are  also  engraved 
and  carved.  Platinum  watches  are  studded  with 
diamonds  and  other  gems. 

The  "jewels"  in  a  watch  movement  are  real,  tiny 
gems— rubies,  diamonds,  sapphires,  garnets,  and 
quartz.  They  are  used  in  the  watch  bearings  because 
of  their  hardness  and  the  value  of  a  movement  is  some- 
what dependent  on  the  number  of  jewels  in  it.  Full- 
jeweled  watches  have  23  jewels.  The  smallest  number 
in  an  American  watch  is  7,  but  Swiss  watches  are  said 
to  be  made  sometimes  with  one.  Watch  movements 
are  now  so  perfected  that  even  very  small  watches  will 
keep  excellent  time,  though  the  machinery  is  too  delicate 
to  wear  so  long  a  time  as  the  medium  sizes. 

Among  women,  pocket  watches  on  chains  have  al- 
most disappeared.  The  watches  generally  worn  are 
either  bracelet  or  strap  wrist  watches,  or  pendant 
watches,  very  small  and  hanging  from  a  small  chain. 
The  latter  are  often  pear-shaped  with  the  point  of  the 
pear  either  up  or  down.  Novelty  watches  are  seen  for 
rings  and  some  have  been  worn  on  the  ankles.  They  are 
also  worn  suspended  from  brooches  instead  of  chains. 

The  convenience  of  the  wrist  watch  was  demon- 
strated during  the  war  and  since  1914  the  fashion  has 


CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES 


211 


been  popular  among  men.    Men's  wrist  watches  are  of 
silver  or  gunmetal  and  are  worn  on  a  strap. 

Men's  watches,  except  those  for  the  wrist,  are  no 
smaller  in  diameter  than  they  have  been  for  many 
years,  but  they  are  exceedingly  thin  and  light. 

History  of  Time  Measurement 

The  ancients  measured  the  time  of  day  by  the  sun. 
We  find  sun  dials  on  walls  and  pavements  as  well  as  on 
raised  standards  in  old  ruins. 

The  water  clock  was  probably  the  first  instrument 
by  which  time  was  measured  by  mechanism.  It  was 
used  as  early  as  140  b.c.  A  water  clock  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  consisted  of  two  posts  with  a  bar  con- 
necting them  at  the  top.  On  this  bar  was  wound  a  cord 
attached  to  a  weight.  The  weight  was  carried  down  by 
gravity  but  regulated  by  the  dripping  of  water  drop  by 
drop  from  a  drum.  As  the  weight  descended  it  pointed 
the  hours  which  were  marked  on  the  posts. 

First  Timepieces 

The  first  timepieces  of  which  we  have  any  definite 
knowledge  were  made  in  the  fourteenth  century.  These 
early  clocks  were  often  fantastic.  The  first  of  the 
celebrated  Strassburg  clocks  was  made  in  1350.  These 
clocks  all  had  mechanical  devices  by  which  puppets 
came  out  when  the  hour  was  struck,  horsemen  struck 


1^1 


212 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


their  lances,  or  apostles  filed  across  the  front  of  the  dial. 
The  great  clock  still  existing  in  the  city  of  Rouen, 
France  (Figure  13),  tells  the  hours,  days  of  the  week, 
and  phases  of  the  moon. 

The  machinery  of  these  early  clocks  consisted  of  a 
system  of  wheels  and  balances  which  were  not  very 
accurate.  A  coiled  spring  was  substituted  for  the 
weights  in   1500.     The  pendulum  was  introduced  in 

1657. 
When  clocks  were  run  by  hanging  weights  they  were 

stationary  but  after  the   introduction  of  the  spring 

they  were  portable.    As  these  clocks  had  only  one  hand 

it  was  not  so  necessary  that  they  keep  exact  time,  but 

after  the  invention  of  the  pendulum  the  compensating 

pendulums  soon  followed,  the  mercurial  in  1721  and 

the  gridiron  in  1726.     Wall  sweeps  or  "wag  on  the 

wall"  were  made  like  grandfather  clocks  except  that 

they  had  no  cases.    The  first  ones  were  sent  to  England 

from  Holland  without  the  cases  to  save  expense  and 

hung  up  that  way — perhaps  by  mistake. 

American  Clocks 

Among  the  early  American  clock-makers  was 
William  Davis  who  came  to  the  United  States  in  1683. 
His  clocks  had  wooden  works.  So  did  the  Terry 
clocks  made  by  the  firm  of  Eli  Terry,  Seth  Thomas, 
and  Silas  Hoadley,  formed  in  1809.     Seth  Thomas, 


Figure  13.     The  Great  Clock  Tower  at  Rouen 


INTENTIONAL  SECOND  EXPOSURE 


212 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


their  lances,  or  apostles  filed  across  the  front  of  the  dial. 
The  great  clock  still  existing  in  the  city  of  Rouen, 
France  (Figure  13),  tells  the  hours,  days  of  the  week, 
and  phases  of  the  moon. 

The  machinery  of  these  early  clocks  consisted  of  a 
system  of  wheels  and  balances  which  were  not  very 
accurate.  A  coiled  spring  was  substituted  for  the 
weights  in  1500.     The  pendulum  was  introduced  in 

1657. 

When  clocks  were  run  by  hanging  weights  they  were 
stationary  but  after  the  introduction  of  the  spring 
they  were  portable.  As  these  clocks  had  only  one  hand 
it  was  not  so  necessary  that  they  keep  exact  time,  but 
after  the  invention  of  the  pendulum  the  compensating 
pendulums  soon  followed,  the  mercurial  in  1721  and 
the  gridiron  in  1726.  Wall  sweeps  or  "wag  on  the 
wall"  were  made  like  grandfather  clocks  except  that 
they  had  no  cases.  The  first  ones  were  sent  to  England 
from  Holland  without  the  cases  to  save  expense  and 
hung  up  that  way — perhaps  by  mistake. 

American  Clocks 

Among  the  early  American  clock-makers  was 
William  Davis  who  came  to  the  United  States  in  1683. 
His  clocks  had  wooden  works.  So  did  the  Terry 
clocks  made  by  the  firm  of  Eli  Terry,  Seth  Thomas, 
and  Silas  Hoadley,  formed  in  1809.     Seth  Thomas, 


Figure  13.     The  Great  Cloek  Tower  at  Rouen 


CLOCKS  AND  WATCHES 


213 


perhaps  the  most  celebrated  of  the  old  makers,  was  born 
in  Connecticut  in  1785  and  died  in  1859.  The  company 
he  founded  exists  today  and  makes  some  of  our  best 

clocks* 

The  largest  clock  in  the  world,  and  one  famous  also 
for  its  beauty,  is  in  the  Metropolitan  Tower,  New 
York  City.    It  has  four  dials  made  of  reinforced  con- 
crete faced  with  blue  and  white  vitreous  tile.     The 
dials  are  26  feet,  6  inches  in  diameter  and  the  figures 
are  4  feet  high.    The  minute  hands  are  17  feet  from 
end  to  end  and  weigh  1,000  pounds;  the  hour  hands  3 
feet,  4  inches  and  weigh  700  pounds.    They  revolve  on 
roller  bearings  and  are  run  by  electricity.     A  master 
clock  in  the  directors'  room  controls  this  and  a  hundred 
other  clocks.     The   chimes   are  those  composed  by 
Handel  for  the  clock  at  Cambridge,  England.     The 
big  bell  which  strikes  the  hours  weighs  7,000  pounds. 
The  lantern  which  flashes  the  hours  at  night  is  8  feet  in 
diameter  and  its  light  can  be  seen  at  sea.     It  was 
made  by  the  Self-Winding  Clock  Company,  Brooklyn. 

History  of  Watches 

As  the  invention  of  the  main  spring  (1500)  made 
portable  clocks  possible,  the  balance  spring  (1658) 
brought  the  pocket  timepiece  or  watch.  Old  watches, 
however,  were  very  clumsy,  being  about  2  inches  thick 
and  some  were  even  larger.     The  cases  were  carved. 


214  SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 

enameled,  and  studded  with  gems.  They  were  not  only 
made  of  gold  and  silver  but  of  tortoise  shell.  The 
cases  were  so  beautiful  and  fragile,  however,  that  an 
outer  case  was  required  often  made  of  shagreen  leather, 
a  thick  leather  into  which  dried  seeds  were  trodden  to 
give  it  a  pitted  surface.  It  was  stained  green  with 
sal  ammoniac  and  copper  filings.  Pinchbeck  cases  were 
made  from  an  alloy  resembling  gold,  which  was  in- 
vented by  Christopher  Pinchbeck  in  172 1. 


Chapter  XXVHI 

BRONZE  AND  IVORY  ORNAMENTS 

Kinds  of  Bronzes 

Bronze  may  vary  considerably  in  its  composition 
and  color.  Some  bronzes  appear  almost  jet  black  but 
with  a  slight  shading  in  their  metallic  luster.  From 
this  they  shade  to  browns  and  greens  and  even  grays 
with  a  silvery  luster. 

Some  European  and  American  bronzes  may  be  seen, 
but  in  these  bronzes  the  metal  is  usually  cast  in  figure 
molds  from  models  made  by  artists  and  is  necessarily 
expensive. 

Japanese  Bronzes 

The  bronzes  to  be  found  in  an  art  department  are 
usually  of  Chinese  or  Japanese  origin,  especially  the 
latter,  as  the  Japanese  are  the  most  skilful  and  artistic 
bronze-makers  in  the  world.  They  use  two  different 
alloys :  One  is  3  parts  gold  and  97  parts  copper ;  the 
other  is  one-third  silver  and  two-thirds  copper.  A 
bronze,  called  by  them  '^Chinese  metal,"  is  made  of 
copper,  lead,  and  tin. 

The  finest,  or  gold  bronze,  after  it  has  been  given 
what  is  called  the  "patina"  treatment,  consisting  of 

215 


2l6 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


boiling  in  lye,  dipping  in  plum  vinegar  and  salt,  boil- 
ing again  with  copper  sulphate,  and  polishing  with 
charcoal,  becomes  a  beautiful  black  with  a  sheen  of 
violet.    The  silver  alloy  may  be  gray,  red,  or  brown. 

The  Japanese  value  the  artist's  work  not  so  much  for 
the  design  as  for  the  chisel  cuttings.  They  have  thirty- 
six  different  classes  of  chisels  and  a  number  of 
varieties  in  each  class.  They  punch  microscopic  dots 
in  straight  lines  to  make  *'fish  roe"  backgrounds,  and 
sometimes  the  surface  has  crossing  lines  which  look 
like  a  straw  mat.  The  relief  may  be  low,  medium,  or 
high.  That  is,  the  figures  may  stand  out  a  very  little 
from  the  background  or  they  may  be  raised  quite 
high.  They  do  an  exquisite  kind  of  fine  carving  like 
engraving.  The  **kati-kiri-bori"  is  a  kind  of  brush 
work  done  with  the  chisel.  It  is  very  fine  and  no 
changes  can  be  made. 

Much  of  the  bronze  is  cast,  and  the  chisel  is  only 

used  to  finish  it  off. 

Damascening 

The  Japanese  inlay  gold,  silver,  and  metal  alloys  in 
their  bronze.  The  process  is  called  by  western  nations 
^^damascening,"  or  "damaskening,"  as  the  earliest 
specimens  of  this  type  came  from  Damascus. 

Damascening  is  done  in  three  different  ways.  Ac- 
cording to  the  first  method  the  foundation  metal  is 


BRONZE  AND  IVORY  ORNAMENTS  217 

engraved  with  undercut  lines;  that  is,  the  cutting  is 
made  beneath  the  surface  and  a  thread  of  gold  or 
silver  is  forced  in  by  hammering  or  pressed  by  the 
burnisher.  By  the  second  method  the  metal  to  be 
encrusted  is  held  between  slighdy  raised  walls  in  the 
foundation  metal. 

The  third  method  consists  in  roughing  the  founda- 
tion metal  with  a  sharp  tool  and  then  pressing  or 
hammering  thin  layers  of  gold  or  silver  on  it.  This 
is  the  latest  and  least  durable  form  of  damascen- 
ing. Sometimes  holes  are  punched  in  the  background 
and  points  of  the  inlaid  metal  are  punched  through, 
serving  as  keys  to  hold  it  on.  Damascening  is  not 
only  used  in  oriental  art  objects  but  also  in  jewelry. 

Oriental  Design 

Chinese  and  Japanese  bronzes  are  often  very  elab- 
orate and  sometimes  grotesque.  The  dragon  is  a 
favorite  subject  for  design  and  may  be  seen  writhing 
over  vases  and  lampstands,  showing  his  teeth  or 
spreading  his  claws  on  all  sides.  Tiny  pagodas,  or 
temples,  and  images  of  oriental  gods  are  also  common. 
Little  animals  and  birds,  especially  monkeys  and  long- 
legged  cranes,  are  found  in  Japanese  figurines. 

Imitation  Bronzes 

A  composition  metal  made  of  very  refractory  clays 


2l8 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


by  a  secret  formula  and  painted  with  a  metallic  coating 
has  all  the  surface  effect  of  bronze.  It  often  looks 
so  much  like  the  real  metal  that  one  must  tap  it  with 
a  pencil  and  hear  the  dull  flat  response  instead  of  the 
ring  of  the  true  bronze,  or  must  handle  and  feel  its 
dead  weight  in  order  to  be  sure  that  it  is  only  an 
imitation.     It  is  a  modification  of  the  old  lusters. 

Really  beautiful  statuettes  and  vases  are  made  in 
this  "metalized"  pottery,  which  comes  under  various 
trade-names.  The  appearance  gives  no  indication  of 
the  strength  of  the  object,  as  clay  which  is  exceedingly 
strong  and  resistant  may  be  given  the  same  surface 
effect  as  a  piece  of  plaster  of  paris. 

French  art  bronze  is  iron  painted  with  a  brown 
metallic  composition.  It  has  a  hard  surface  which  is 
less  like  true  bronze  in  appearance  than  the  metallized 
pottery.  It  is  seen  in  statuettes  and  busts  of  French 
design. 

Ivory  Ornaments 

Ivory  has  always  been  a  costly  as  well  as  a  beautiful 
material  much  used  for  ornamental  purposes  in  the 
Far  East,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  western  countries. 
It  is  obtained  from  the  tusks  of  the  African  male 
elephant,  or  from  those  of  either  the  male  or  the  female 
in  India.  These  tusks  are  simply  the  modification  of 
two  of  the  animal's  teeth  and  are  a  little  harder  than 


BRONZE  AND  IVORY  ORNAMENTS  219 

bone  but  not  so  brittle  as  horn.  The  substance  is  very 
dense,  with  circular  wavy  lines  which  show  the  layers 
of  dentine  and  fine  radiating  lines  cross  these,  giving 
ivory  its  beautiful  delicate  shading  and  distinguishing 
it  from  the  imitations  made  from  celluloid. 

Ivory  is  easy  to  work  and  polish,  and  can  be  carved 
into  marvellous  little  figures  that  must  be  examined 
under  a  microscope  to  see  their  perfection.  These 
tiny  statuettes  are  either  Chinese  or  Japanese,  but  the 
latter  are  the  best.  Sometimes  they  are  very  funny 
or  grotesque,  sometimes,  dignified.  They  are  called 
"netsukes."  Boxes,  caskets,  paper  knives,  and  knife 
handles  are  often  covered  with  lacelike  carving. 

The  Chinese  make  puzzle  balls,  one  inside  of  another, 
by  an  ingenious  and  difficult  method.  Out  of  a  block 
of  ivory  they  first  make  a  rough  ball,  then  bore  holes 
in  it  to  a  certain  depth  and  work  with  bent  steel  tools 
around  each  hole  until  each  shell  is  separated  from  the 
next  smaller  one.  The  balls  are  not  really  very  perfect, 
but  the  ornamentation  hides  the  imperfections. 

Ivorine,  French  ivory,  etc.,  are  made  from  celluloid 
tinted  and  veined  to  look  like  ivory. 

Brass  and  Dutch  Metal  Ornaments 

Brass  and  Dutch  metal  are  combinations  of  copper 
and  zinc.  Brass  is  more  fusible  than  copper  and 
therefore  casts  better.    It  is  yellower  than  copper  and 


220 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


will  take  a  fine  polish,  but  tarnishes  very  easily.  If 
dipped  in  nitric  acid  and  lacquered  with  varnish,  the 
surface  is  protected. 

Many  articles  in  an  art  department  are  made  of 
brass:  vases,  jars,  candlesticks,  smokers'  sets,  library 
sets,    small    boxes,    and    a    great    variety    of    small 

articles. 

Heavy  brass  objects  are  usually  cast,  but  many 
smaller  pieces  made  of  thin  sheets  hammered  are  bent 
into  the  proper  shape,  sometimes  over  wooden  founda- 
tions. 

Brass  is  often  decorated  by  "hammering."  The 
sheet  of  metal  is  placed  over  a  lead  or  a  wooden  block, 
and  the  design  worked  into  it  from  the  under  side 
with  hammers  and  small  punches.  Occasionally  it  is 
worked  down  from  the  right  side.  It  is  also  cut  or 
stamped  out  with  dies. 

Dutch  metal  has  different  proportions  from  those  of 
brass,  but  is  somewhat  similar  to  it. 

Teakwood 

Teakwood  is  used  for  the  carved  stands  upon  which 
oriental  vases  and  figurines  are  placed.  The  teak 
tree  grows  in  southeastern  Asia  and  the  Philippine 
Islands.  The  wood  is  golden  yellow  which  turns  to 
brown  as  it  ages.  It  takes  a  beautiful  polish  and  is 
soft  enough  for  carving. 


BRONZE  AND  IVORY  ORNAMENTS         221 


Silver  Ornaments 

Silver  candlesticks  and  candelabra  are  of  three  gen- 
eral styles: 

Colonial,  with  simple  lines  and  little  ornamenta- 
tion. 
"Period"  designs  (see  Chapter  XXVI). 
Dutch  silver,  covered  with  landscapes,  figures,  and 
other  decorative  designs  in  high  relief. 

The  decorations  may  be  in  the  form  of  mounts 
soldered  on  and  smoothed  down,  as  in  hollow-ware, 
or  the  whole  candlestick  may  be  hollow.  The  latter  are 
made  by  pouring  the  metal  into  molds  with  a  core 
which  crumbles  as  it  dries  and  is  easily  removed,  or 
by  stamping  out  the  design,  bending,  and  uniting  with 

silver  solder. 

Dutch  silver  is  the  name  given  to  a  style  rather  than 
to  a  material.  It  may  be  pure  silver  of  sterling  quality, 
or  it  may  be  electroplated  ware,  but  it  is  always  made 
in  ornate,  repousse  designs.  Solid  silver  in  these 
designs  is  imported  from  Holland  where  it  originated 
and  appears  in  every  kind  of  hollow-  and  flat-ware, 
vases,  epergnes,  salvers,  boxes,  spoons,  and  knives  and 
forks. 


Chapter  XXIX . 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  SALESPEOPLE  AND 

CUSTOMERS 

Care  of  Stock 

The  suggestions  given  as  to  the  care  of  jewelry 
stock  should  also  be  applied  to  the  Silverware  Depart- 
ment stock. 

Absolute  shining  cleanliness  and  order  have  much 
to  do  with  its  attractiveness  and  are  also  necessary  to 
prevent  deterioration.  The  finer  finished  silverware  is 
scratched  and  marred  very  easily,  and  the  articles 
must  be  kept  free  from  dust  and  wiped  with  clean 

cloths. 

Silver  is  quickly  discolored  by  sulphur  which  is 
usually  present  in  small  quantities  in  the  air.  Cases 
should  therefore  be  kept  tightly  closed  and  the  silver 
examined  frequently  for  traces  of  tarnish.  When  this 
appears  it  must  be  quickly  removed  both  to  protect  the 
silver  and  make  it  salable. 

Cleaning  Silver 

Tarnish  is  removed  from  silver  by  the  use  of  a 
powdered  earth  called  by  various  names,  such  as 
tripoli,  rottenstone,  electro-silicon,  and  diatomaceous 
earth.     It  is  nearly  as  hard  as  sand  but  very  fine 

323 


SELLING  SUGGESTIONS 


223 


grained.     Whiting  is  finely  powdered  English  chalk. 
It  is  the  basis  of  nearly  all  silver  polishes. 

Electrical  silver  cleaners  consist  of  aluminum  plates 
which  are  put  into  boiling  water  in  which  baking  soda 
or  salt  have  been  dissolved.  The  chemical  reaction 
releases  hydrogen  which  unites  with  the  sulphur  and 
leaves  the  silver  clean. 

The  same  effect  may  be  secured  by  putting  the  silver 
article  in  an  enameled  pan  containing  baking  soda  or 
table  salt  and  a  piece  of  either  zinc  or  aluminum.  The 
silver  must  touch  the  other  metal  in  order  to  produce  the 
reaction.  Solid  silver  may  need  to  be  rubbed  because 
it  contains  more  alloy  than  the  surface  of  plated  ware. 

Gold-lined  pieces  must  not  be  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  solution.  (See  "Housefurnishings  Manual" 
for  further  information  on  cleaning  materials.) 

Cleaning  Artificial  Ivory 

Artificial  ivory  should  be  cleaned  with  a  cream 
which  is  prepared  for  the  purpose  and  which  removes 
slight  scratches  as  well  as  giving  it  a  polish.  Alcohol 
should  never  be  used  as  it  dissolves  celluloid. 

The  Care  of  Clocks 

In  order  that  clocks  may  keep  good  time  they  must 
be  properly  hung.  The  clock  must  be  "plumb"  on  the 
wall  or  stand. 


i  I 


224 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 


The  vibrations  of  the  pendulum  must  be  equal  and 
one  should  listen  to  the  sounds  of  the  wheel  teeth  for 
scraping.  The  rod  should  hang  in  the  center  of  the 
loop  in  the  crutch  wire,  the  forked  support  of  the 
escapement.  If  it  rubs  the  front  or  back  end  of 
the  loop  the  friction  will  stop  the  clock.  If  the  wire  is 
bent  or  misplaced  the  clock  will  stop. 

If  the  clock  creaks  it  may  need  a  drop  of  oil  but 
it  should  not  be  oiled  too  often.  Only  watch  oil  should 
be  used.    The  best  comes  from  the  jaw  of  the  porpoise. 

Knowledge  of  Manufacture 

Salespeople  should  have  a  knowledge  of  the  manu- 
facture of  silverware,  as  many  questions  are  asked  by 
practical  housekeepers  about  the  wearing  qualities  of 
different  kinds.  They  also  should  know  of  the  hand- 
processes  used  in  making  fine  sterling  ware  because 
these  account  for  its  high  cost.  They  should  be  able 
to  answer  questions  about  Sheffield  correctly  and  should 
know  how  to  distinguish  between  different  grades  of 

plate. 

Period  Silver 

Many  people  wish  to  furnish  their  dining-rooms  in 
accordance  with  a  certain  historic  style  or  period.  The 
silver  selected  should  be  in  keeping  with  their  fur- 
niture and  other  appointments.    Both  salespeople  and 


SELLING  SUGGESTIONS 


225 


purchasers  who  are  chosing  the  silverware  for  such  a 
dining-room  should  know  the  characteristics  of  the 
period.  Very  often  the  name  of  the  pattern  will  not 
be  very  helpful,  as  it  is  coined  for  the  purpose  and 
might  apply  to  one  of  several  quite  different  periods. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  type  actually  used  during  that 
period  may  be  too  ornate  for  the  purpose  of  the  modern 
house.  A  real  acquaintance  with  the  characteristics 
of  the  time,  its  art,  and  its  atmosphere,  will  make  an 
intelligent  and  suitable  choice  possible  though  the 
pattern  be  a  modern  one. 


Chapter  XXX 

CLASSIFICATION     OF     SILVERWARE, 

CLOCKS,  WATCHES,  AND 

ORNAMENTS 

Divisions 

A.  Hollow-ware  (Sterling  and  Plated) 

B.  Flat-ware   (Sterling  and  Plated) 

C.  Toilet  Articles  (Sterling  and  Plated) 

D.  Clocks 

E.  Watches 

F.  Ornaments 

A— Hollow-ware 

I.  Articles 

(a)  Trays 

Asparagus 

Bread 

Cocktail 

Sandwich 

Serving 

(b)  Dishes 

Bon  bon 

Butter 

Cheese 

Cracker  and  Cheese 

Fern 

326 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


227 


Fruit 

Meat 

Pie 

Pudding 

Vegetable 

(c)  Cups 

Butter 
Children's 
Coffee 
Collapsible 

Egg 

Loving 

Ramekins 

Sherbet 

Syrup  I 

(d)  Jars 

Horse  Radish 

Jam 

Mustard 

(e)  Plates 

Bread  and  Butter 

Cheese 

Chocolate 

Coffee 

Hot  Water 

Meat 

Pap  Bowl  and  Plate 

Serving 

Syrup 

Tea 

(f)  Sets 

Almond 
Breakfast 

Egg 
Fruit 


228 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 

Ice  Cream 
Lemonade 
Muffin 
Salt 
Water 
(g)  Miscellaneous 
Baskets 
Bottle-holders 

Siphon 

Catsup 
Bottles 

Carafe 

Decanter 

Water 
Bowls 
Candelabras 
Candlesticks 
Casseroles 
Casters 
Centerpieces 

Chafing  Dishes 

Cheese-cutters 

Cocktail  Shakers 

Compotes 

Egg-boilers 

Glasses 

Gravy  Boats 

Mayonnaise  Dishes 

Percolators 

Pepper-mills 

Pitchers 

Syrup 

Water 
Plateau 
Plate-holders 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


229 


Soup  Tureens 
Stoves 
Alcohol 
Electric 
Sugar 
Baskets 
Sifters 
Tea  Caddies 
Thermometers 
Trivets 
Toast  Racks 
Water  Kettles 

2.  Manufacture 

(a)  Sterling 

Hand-wrought 
Commercial 

(b)  Plated 

3.  Decoration 

(a)  Etched 

(b)  Engraved 

(c)  Chased 

(d)  Repousse 

(e)  Pierced 

(f)  Enameled 

B — Flat-ware 

I.  Articles 

(a)  Spoons 
Baby 
Berry 
Bon  Bon 
Coffee 
Dessert 


230  SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 

Five  O'clock  Tea 

Ice  Cream 

Iced  Tea 

Ice  or  Pea  Serviftg 

Jelly 

Lemonade 

Medicine 

Mustard 

Olive 

Orange 

Salad 

Salt 

Soup 

Sugar 

Table 

Tea 
(b)  Forks 

Berry 

Cold  Meat 

Dessert 

Fish 

Fruit 

Ice  Cream 

Olive 

Oyster 

Pastry 

Pie 

Salad 

Sandwich 

Table 
(c)  Knives 

Dessert 
Dinner 
Fish 
Fruit 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


231 


Grapefruit 
Orange 
Pie 
Tea 

(d)  Tongs 

Asparagus 
Bon  Bon 
Ice 

Sandwich 
Sugar 

(e)  Servers 

Cake 
Cheese 
Pie 
Tomato 

(f)  Ladles 

Cream 
Gravy 
Oyster 
Punch 
Soup 

(g)  Sets 

Carving 
Children's 
Fish 

Ice  Cream 
Salad 
(h)  Miscellaneous 
Butter 
Knives 
Picks 
Spreaders 
Bottle-holders 
Call  Bells 
Cheese  Scoups 


232 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 

Corn-holders 
Food-pushers 
Napkin 

Clips 

Rings 
Nut 

Crackers 

Picks 
Knife  Rests 


2.  Manufacture  and  Decoration. 
(2)   above.] 

C — Toilet  Articles 

I.  Articles 

(a)  Atomizers 

(b)  Boxes 

Jewel  Cases 
Soap 
Talcum 
Tooth  Brush 

(c)  Brushes 

Baby 
Clothes 
Hair 
Hat 

(d)  Combs 

(e)  Hat  Pin  Holders 

(f)  Jars 

Cigar 
Cigarette 
Cream 
Salve 

(g)  Manicure  Articles 


[See  A    (i)    and 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


(h)  Mirrors 

Hand 

Standing 
(i)    Perfume  Bottles 

Sets 

Single 
(j)    Pin 

Cushions 

Trays 
(k)   Sets 

Cordial 

Infants' 

Lavatory 

Manicure 

Smoking 
(1)  Shaving  Brushes 
(m)   Smelling  Salts 

2.  Manufacture  and  Decoration. 
(2)  above.] 


233 


[See  A   (i)   and 


D — Clocks 


I.  Articles 

(a)  Standing  or  Grandfather 

(b)  Wall 

(c)  Shelf  or  Mantle 

French 
American 
English 
German 

(d)  Table  and  Desk 

(e)  Traveling 

2.  Materials.     [See  F  (2)  below.] 


■ 


234  SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 

3.  Manufacture 

(a)  Works 

Handwork 
Machine-work 

(b)  Cases 

Cast 
Assembled 

4.  Decoration 

(a)  Carved 

(b)  Inlaid 

(c)  Engraved 

(d)  Enameled 

(e)  Lacquered 

(f)  With  Ornamental  Moimts 

E — Watches 

1.  Kinds 

(a)  Pocket 

(b)  Wrist 

Bracelet 
Strap 

(c)  Pendant 

(d)  Ring 

(e)  Novelty  Shapes 

2.  Movements 

(a)  Number  of  Jewels:  7  to  23 

(b)  Kinds  of  Jewels 

Ruby 

Diamond 

Sapphire 

Garnet 

Quartz 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 

3.  Faces 

(a)  Gold 

(b)  White  Enamel 

4.  Cases 

(a)  Gold:  14  to  18  Karats 

(b)  Gold-filled 

(c)  Silver 

(d)  Gunmetal 

(e)  Platinum 

5.  Decoration 

(a)  Enameled  on  Silver 

(b)  Niello 

(c)  Hand 

Carved 

Colored 

Engraved 

(d)  Precious  stones 

(e)  Mother-of-pearl 


235 


F — Ornaments 


1.  Articles 

(a)  Boxes  and  Novelties 

(b)  Busts 

(c)  Candlesticks 

(d)  Desk  Fittings 

(e)  Figurines 

(f)  Library  Sets 

(g)  Smokers'  Sets 
(h)   Statuettes 

(i)  Vases 

2.  Materials 

(a)  Metals 
Gold 
Silver 


236 


SILVERWARE  AND  ORNAMENTS 

Gunmetal 

Copper 

Brass 

Bronze 

Nickel 

Steel 

(b)  Stones 

Alabaster 

Marble 

Malachite 

Serpentine 

Onyx 

Agate 

Jade 

Lapis  Lazuli 

Azurite 

Marcasite 

Rhodonite 

(c)  Woods 

Ebony 
Teakwood 

# 

Mahogany 

Oak 

Lacquered  soft  woods 

(d)  Other  Materials 

Enamel 

Ivory 

Mother-of-pearl 

Horn 

Bone 

Amber 

Lignite 

Pottery 

Glass 

Rock  Crystal 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK 


237 


3.  Manufacture 

(a)  Hand-carved 

(b)  Modeled 

(c)  Turned 

(d)  Spun 

(e)  Cast 

4.  Decoration 

(a)  Carving 

(b)  Engraving 

(c)  Inlaying 

(d)  Enameling 

(e)  Ornamental  Mounts 

(f)  Studded  with  Stones 


Appendix 

Books  for  Reference 

Gem  Stones,  G.  F.  Herbert  Smith.    Pott,  $2 

Book  of  Precious  Stones,  J.  Wodiska.    Putnam,  $2.50      ^ 

The  Curious  Lore  of  Precious   Stones,  George  Fredenck 

Kunz.    Lippincott,  $5  ,,      ^^  ,  -. 

Precious  Stones,  W.  Goodchild.    Van  Nostrand,  ?2 
The  Pearl,  W.  R.  Cattelle.    Lippincott,  $2 
The  Diamond,  W.  R.  Cattelle.     Lippmcott,  $2 
The  World's  Minerals,  L.  J.  Spencer.     Stokes,  $2 
The  World's  Gold,  L.  DeLaunay.    Putnam,  $1.75 
Silverwork  and  Jewelry,  H.  Wilson.    Appleton,  $1.40 
Silver  for  the  Dining  Room— Selected  Periods,  J.   b.  Hol- 

brook.     Univ.  Press. 
Simple  Jewelry,  R.  L.  B.  Rathbone.    Van  Nostrand,  $2 
Jewelry,  H.  Clifford  Smith.     Putnam,  $7.50 
Jewelry,  C.  J.  H.  Davenport.     McClurg,  $1 
The  Art  of  the  Goldsmith  and  Jeweler,  T.  B.  Wigley.    Lip- 
pincott, $2.75 
Enamelling,  L.  F.  Day.     Scribner,  $3 
Handbook  of  Ornament,  F.  S.  Meyer.    Hesshng,  $3.60 
Nature  and  Ornament,  L.  F.  Day.     Scribner,  $3 
Pattern  Making,  L.  F.  Day.     Scribner,  $3 
Line  and  Form,  Walter  Crane.     Macmillan,  $2.25 
Bases  of  Design,  Walter  Crane.    Macmillan,  $2.25 
Autobiography,  B.  Cellini.     Dutton,  35  cents 
Metal  Work  and  Enamelling,  Maryon.     Scribner,  $3 
Art  Metal  Work,  Arthur  Payne.    Manual  Arts  Press,  $1.50 
Metal  Working,  P.  N.  Hasluck.    McKay,  $2.50 
Divers  Arts,  Theophilus.     (Out  of  Print}  ,01* 

Chats  on  Old  Jewelry  and  Trinkets,  M.  Percivale,    Stokes,  $5 
Old  Gock  Book,  N.  Hudson  Moore.     F.  Stokes  &  Co. 
Sheffield  Plate,  Bertie  Nyllie.     B.  T.  Batsford. 
American  Watchmaker  and  Jeweler 
Great  Industries  of  the  United  States   (Trade  Journal) 
The  National  Jeweler  and  Optician  (Trade  Journal) 
The  Jewelers'  Circular  Weekly 

239 


INDEX 


Adamamtinb  Lustbr,  39 

AgaTB,  54.  90 

moss,  55 
Alloys, 

bronze,  129.  3I5.  3z6 

definition.  18 

effect  on  color  of  gold.  9 

in  commercial  jewelry,  74 

metals  used, 
with  gold,  9.  xS 
with  platinum,  14,  z8 
with  silver,  18 

pinchbeck  gold,  a  14 

preparation  of, 
fluxes,  30 
melting  point,  IQ 

purposes,  18 

solders,  19 
Amalgam,  8,  188 
Amalgamation,  8 
Amazonitb,  55 
Ambsr.  35.  53.  149 

demi,  54 

description  and  sources,  53 

imitation,  63 
Ambthyst, 

comi>osition,  45 

imitation,  6a 

meaning  of  name,  45 

popularity,  45 

range  of  color,  35,  4S 

Siberian,  45 

sources,  45 
Annbaling  (See  "Metal  Working") 


Apatitb,  3Z 
Aquamarinb,  34 
Artificial  Stones,  59 
Assaying,  10 
Azuritb.  25.  56.  139 

B 

Bags, 

bead, 140 

mesh,  138 
Baisse  Taillb,  loa 
Band  Setting,  97 
Baroqub  Pearls,  39 
Barren  Rock,  4 
Bastard  Jet,  i43 
Bead  Bags,  140 
Bead  Chains,  lai 
Beads.  i3i.  133.  140 

jet,  143 
Bearer,  for  Setting  Stonbs,  96 
Bell  Metal,  130 
Bbllying  Hammer,  173 
Beryl,  33 
Bezel,   Rest   for    thb    Cover    im 

Hollow-ware,  174 
Birth  Stones, 

origin  of  custom,  154 

suitability  for  presents,  z6x 

two  lists,  155 
Black  Garnets,  36 
Black  Tourmaline,  36 
Blister  Pearls,  39,  4' 
Bloodstone,  34,  54 
BoRT,  33 
Boutons  or  Button  Pearls,  39i  43 


241 


242 


INDEX 


Bkacblbts.  75.  133 
Brass.  139*  219 
high,  139 

onnolu  finish,  139,  3o6 
Brass  Ornaments,  319 

decoration,  330 
Brazilian  Sapphires,  53 
Brazilian  Tourmaline,  38 
Brillandebning       (See      "  Precious 

stones,  cutting") 
Briolbtte,  8a 
Brisb  Fan,  135 
Bristol  Diamonds,  aa 
Bronzb, 

damascening,  a  16 
difference  in  composition,  139 
gold,  130,  3IS 
silver,  315,  3i6 
uses,  308 
Bronzes, 

Chinese  metal,  ai5 
imitation, 

French  art,  317 
metalized  potteryt  3 18 
Japanese,  a  15 
kinds,  ais-3x8 
oriental  designs,  317 
Brooches,  75.  118 

friendship,  161 
Brown  Garnet,  36 
Brown  Tourmaline,  36 
Brushes,    183    (See    also    "Leather 

Goods  Manual") 
Bullion,  9 


Cable  Link,  in  Chains,  i3o 
Cabochon    (See    "Precious    stones. 

cutting") 
Cairngorm,  36,  56 
Cameos, 

definition,  89 

history,  91 


Cameos — Contin  ued 

imitation,  63,  93 

materials  used,  90 

shell,  91 

stone,  90 
Carbonado,  33 
Carnblian,  33.  56 
Cat's  Eye, 

distinctive  feature,  SO 

quartz,  50 

ruby,  43 

sources,  so 
Celluloid      (See      also      "  Notions 
Manual ") 

composition,  144 

used  to  imitate  other  substances, 

63,  14a.  144 
Chains,  is,  "9 
CHAMPLBvft  Enamel,  101 
Charcoal  Blocks,  6s,  67 
Chinese  Metal,  315 
Chlorination,  8 
Chrysoberyl,  34,  35 
Chrysoprase,  34,  so 
Citrine,  35 

Claw  or  Coronet  Setting,  95 
Clocks, 
care  of,  333 
cases, 

materials,  3o6,  308 
spandrels,  306 
early  American,  3ia 
easel,  308 
electric,  308 
escapement,  30 1,  303 
master,  307 
materials,  305 
Metropolitan  tower,  a  13 
parts,  300 
pendulums. 

bob,  303,  304,  308 
compensating,  303,  3ia 
gridiron,  304,  3ia 
mercury,  304 


INDEX 


243 


Clocks — Continued 
pendulums — Continued 

wooden,  304 

zinc  and  iron,  304 
regulators,  307 
shelf  or  mantel,  300,  307 
standing  or  grandfather,  300,  301 
striking  mechanism,  aoi,  305 
table  and  desk,  300,  308 
traveling,  300,  309 

wall,  300,  306.  313 

CLOisoNNfi  Enamel,  100 
Collar  Buttons,  i3S 
Collet,  96 
Combs, 

dressing.    183    (See   also   "Notions 
Manual") 

history,  146 

manufacture,  145 

materials,  141-144 

types,  141 
Commercial  Jewelry,  74 
Copper, 

affect  of  air  on,  130 

base  metal  of  Sheffield  plate,  186 

characteristics,  128 

extraction  from  ore,  I38 

native,  138 

patina,  130 

sources,  128 
CoppBR  Orbs,  138 

Copper    Plating,    Metals    to    be 
Plated  with  Gold  or  Silver, 
78 
Coral, 

color,  23,  46 

composition,  46 

imitation,  63 

sources.  46 

white.  23 
Corundum,  a8,  31.  43.  44 
Craftsman  Jewelry  (See  "Jewelry, 

craftsman") 
Cuff  Links,  135 


Culture  Pearls,  43 
Curb  Link,  in  Chains,  120 
Cut  Down  Setting,  96 
Cuttlefish  Molds,  74 
Cyaniding,  9.  16 


Damascening,  73 

three  methods,  3x6 
Davis,  William,  aia 
Design. 
bronzes,  a  17 
jewelry, 

elements  of,  89,  113 

form  and  line,  no 

foundation,  no 

in  different  countries,  114 

relation  to  material,  106 

t3ri>es  of  decoration,  iia 

units  of,  108 

use  of  gems,  109 
silverware, 

basic  forms,  197 

Colonial  patterns,  199 

decoration,  199 

good  design,  197 

material,  197 

use,  197 

workmanship,  199 
Diamonds, 
Bristol,  22 

characteristics,  22,  33 
composition,  33 

cutting  (See  also  "Precious  stones, 
cutting") 

center  of  industry,  85 
discovery  in, 

Brazil,  34 

California,  34 

Euroi)e,  34 

South  Africa,  35 
famous  stones,  33.  37 
fancy  stones,  36 


244 


INDEX 


Diamonds — Continued 

first,    wcond.    and     third     water 
stones.  36 

Florentine,  33,  37 

hardness,  31,  34 

history,  37 

Hope,  33 

jewelry,  74 

Lake  George,  22 

luster,  39,  30,  34 

mining,  35 

Kimberly  and  Jagersfontein.  35 

off  color,  33 

range  of  colors,  22,  33 

size,  34 

sources,  34 

Tiffany,  33 

▼alue,  27,  36 
Diaphaneity.  30 
Dodge,  Nbhemiah,  131 
Dutch  Metal,  319,  220 
Dutch  Silver.  221 


Earrings,  124 

Electroplated  Ware,  181,  189,  190, 

191 
Electroplating, 

gold,  77 

silver,  78 
Emeralds. 

a  trade  term,  24 

evening,  52 

imitation,  61 

rarity  and  size,  38 

sources  of  supply,  38 

true.  24,  37 

value.  a4>  37t  3S 
Enamel. 

characteristics,  99 

colors.  103 
Enameling. 

baisse  taille.  xoa 


Enambung — Continued 

champlev6.  loi 

cloisonn6.  100 

encrusted  enamel,  X03 

history,  105 

painted  enamel,  103 

plique  k  jour,  102 

repouss6,  102 
Encrusted  Enamel,  103 
Escapement  (See  "Clocks") 
Evening  Sets*  126 


INDEX 


245 


F/NS, 

Chinese,  137 

Egyptian,  138 

history,  138 

Japanese,  137 

manufacture,  129 

materials,  128 

North  American  Indian,  138 

Oriental,  138 

Spanish,  X37,  138 

types,  13s 

Watteau,  137 
Feathers,  in  Stones,  53 
Feldspar,  31,  5i.  55 
Filigree  Jewelry,  67,  zi8 
Finishes.  Metal.  39.  79,  130.  Z3t 
Fire  op  Diamond,  aa 
Fire  Opal,  23 

Fire  Polish  (See  "Fire  scale") 
Fire  Scale  on  Silver.    131,    i?^* 

196 
Fish  Roe  Backgrounds,  216 
Florentine  Diamond,  33,  37 
Flotation,  z6 

cones,  16 
Pluoritb,  3Z 
Plush  Setting,  96 
Fluxes,  ao,  185 
Friendship  Brooches,  i6x 


Gallery,  75.  98 
Garnet, 
almandite,  47 
black,  26 
Bohemian.  47 
brown,  26 
green,  24 
imitation,  62 
olivine,  24,  47 
precious.  47 

sources.  47 
range  of  colors,  46 
red.  23 
Giant,  6 
GoLCONDA,  34 
Gold, 
alloys  of.  3.  9.  18,  19 

difference    between    old    jewelry 
and  new,  10 
barren  rock,  4 
bullion,  9 
characteristics.  3 
color,  3.  9 
demand,  xx 
density,  4 
ductility,  4 

extracting  from  lodes  or  veins,  min- 
ing, 7 
extracting  from  sand. 

giant.  6 

hydraulic  method.  6 

Long  Tom.  s 

riffles.  5 

Siberia  and  Klondike.  6 

sluice,  5 

washing  methods,  5 
fine,  10 
free,  7 
karats,  zo 
kinds  of  deposits,  5 
malleability.  3 
ore,  4  (See  also  "Gold  ore") 


Gold — Coiriinued 
popularity,  3 

rolled,  or  rolled  plate,  76.  *4X 
Roman,  79 
separating  from  ore, 
amalgamation,  8 
chlorination,  8 
cyaniding,  9 
softness,  4 
sources,  4 
testing. 

assaying,  10 
nitric  acid,  10,  zz 
touchstone,  10 
tinting,  78 
unalterability,  4 
uses,  II 

white,  3,  14;  19 
Gold  Bronze,  215 
Gold  Leaf,  Thickness,  4 
Gold  Ore, 
combinations  with  other  metals,  7 
crushing, 

jaw  breaker,  7 
tube  mill.  8 
vertical  stamps.  8 
Gold  Plating,  77 
Gorham,  Jabez.  15Z 
Grandfather  Clocks  (See  "  Clocks") 
Green  Garnet,  24 
Gypsum.  3z 


Hammer  Marks,  X7S 
Hawk's  Eye,  so 
History, 
jewelry, 

American.  150 

centers  of  modem  industry,  150 

filigree,  isz 

Greek  and  Roman.  149 

savage  tribes,  148 


246 


INDEX 


History — Continued 
jewelry — Continued 

various  articles,  153 

wedding  rings,  152 
period  silver, 

colonial  silver,  igs 

early  Georgian  period,  194 

Jacobean  period,  194 

late  Georgian  period,  195 

Louis  XIV,  193 

Louis  XV,  194 

Louis  XVI,  194 

middle  Georgian  period,  195 
silverware  designs, 

Florentine,  Greek  Gothic,  193 

Martel^,  196 

modem,  195 

Roman.  193 
time  measurement, 

first  timepieces,  211 

water  clocks,  211 
HoADLBY,  Silas,  213 
Hollow-Ware, 
commercial, 

raising.  176 

use  of  dies,  176 
hand- wrought, 

covers  and  mounts,  174 

hammer  marks,  175 

manufacture,  172 

polishing,  176 

raising,  173 

wrinkling,  173 
necking  in,  174 
Horn,  144 
Hyacinth,  as,  26 


Imitation  Stones,  61 

coloring,  61 

history,  63 
Indicolitb,  24 
Intaglios,  93.  i59 


Iridium,  14 
Ivory,  133,  136,  137 

artificial,  cleaning,  322 

ornaments,  219 

source  of,  218 


Jacinth,  25 
Jade,  24,  si 
white,  33 

JaRGOON,  23,  58 

Jasper,  23 
Jaw  Breaker,  7 
Ji:t.  26 

sources,  143 
Spanish,  143 
Whitby.  143 
Jewelry, 

care  of,  158.  163 

centers  of  modem  industry,  150 

cheap,  76 

commerical, 

alloys,  74 

bracelets,  75 

brooches,  75 

chains,  75 

designs,  75 

iavaliers,  75 

rings,  75 
craftsman  (See  also  "Brass,"  "Cop- 
per," "  Enameling,"  and  "Sil- 
ver") 

beads,  133 

decoration,  130 

enamels,  102,  133 

materials,  127 

metal  finishes,  13 X 
diamond,  74 
electronlated,  77 
Egyptian,  127,  133.  148 
enamel  in  (See  "Enamel") 
gold-filled,  76 


INDEX 


247 


Jewelry — Continued 
manufacture, 

designs  for  platinum  jewelry,  73 
platinum,  73 
men's,  125,  126,  i6a 
Moorish,  127 
mourning,  162 
oriental,  17,  137,  I33 
rolled  gold, 

manxifacture,  76 
quality  of  gold,  77 
Jewels  in  Watches,  310 
Job's  Tears.  53 


Karat.  10,  ii 
Kati-Kiri-bori,  3X6 
KiMBERLY  Mines,  35 
KuNz.  George  Frederick,  155 
Kunzite,  36,  53 


Labradoritb,  56 
Lake  George  Diamonds,  33 
Lamellar  Fan,  X37 
Lane,  Thos.  H.,  151 
Lapus  Lazuli,  35.  55 
Lodes  or  Veins  of  Gold,  5 
Long  Tom,  5 
Luster, 
degree. 

glimmering,  39 

glistening,  39 

shining,  39 

splendent,  39,  30 
kinds, 

adamantine,  39,  30 

greasy  or  waxy,  39 

metallic,  39 

pearly,  39 

resinous,  39 

silky,  39 

vitreous,  39 


M 

Malachite,  34,  56 

Mandrils,  67,  68,  69.  i39 

Marcasitb,  57 

MartelS  Pattern,  Silverware,  176, 

196 
Martin,  Vernis,  137 
Men's  Jewelry,  125,  126.  162 
Metal     Finishes     (See     "  Finishes, 

metal  ") 
Metal  Working^ 

annealing.  68 

appliances,  65 

casting,  71 

enameling,  66 

mandrels,  67,  68,  69,  139 

modem  methods,  73 

methods  of  ornamenting.  73 

respouss6  work,  7X 

tools,  66 

wire  drawing.  68 

waste  wax  process,  73 
Metallic  Lustbr,  39 
Mirrors,  183 
MoHs  Table,  30 
Moonstone,  33.  sx 
Moss  Agate,  55 
Mother-of-Pearl,  136 
Mourning  Jewelry,  163 


Necking  in  (See  "Hollow-ware") 
Necklaces,  75,  i3X 
Nbtsukbs,  219 

o 

Olivine,  34,  47,  53 
Onyx,  90 

black,  36 
Opal, 

black,  48 

degree  of  hardness,  31 


248 


INDEX 


Opal — Continued 

fire,  23.  48 

matrix,  48 

play  of  colors,  47 

precious  sources,  47 

white.  33 
Opalescbncb,  47.  51 
Orient,  40 

Ormolu  (See  "Brass") 
Ornaments, 

ivory,  219 

•ilver,  231 

P 

Painted  Enamel,  103 
Palladium,  14 
Patina, 

copper,  130 

treatment,  315 
Paying  Rock,  4 
Pearl  Diving,  40 
Pearls, 

baroques,  39.  I33 

blister,  39,  43 

boutons  or  button,  39,  43 

care  of,  163 

color,  39 

composition  and  shape,  39 

culture,  43 

history,  43 

imitation,  63 

luster  or  "orient,"  40,  4a 

origin,  38 

seed,  41 

setting,  43,  164 

size  and  value,  41 

sources,  40 

structure.  39 
Pearly  Luster,  29 
Pendants,  7S.  123,  161 
Pendulums    (See     "Clocks,    pendu- 
lums") 
Peridot,  34.  53 

Job's  tears,  53 


Pbwter, 

an  alloy  of  tin,  191 

as  base  metal  for  gold  plate,  78 

patterns.  191 
Phenacite,  23 
Pickle,  Acid  for  Rbmoving  Film 

from  Metal.  66 
Pierced  Work,  73 
Piercing  Silver,  181,  188 
Pigeon's  Blood  Ruby,  43 
Pinchbeck,  Christopher,  214 
Pinchbeck  Gold,  214 
Pink  Coral.  26 
Pink  Ruby,  36 
Pink  Spinel.  36 
Pink  Tourmaline,  36 
Pins.  118 

Pitch  Block.  66,  71,  131 
Plate,    Sheffield    (See    "Sheffield 

plate") 
Plated  Ware  (Silver) 

compared  with  sterling  silver,  183 

electroplated,  181 

nickel  silver.  181 

Quadruple  and  quintuple  plate.  181 

reinforced  or  relaid.  181,  182 

rolled    on   copper   (See  "  Sheffield 
plate  ") 

triple  plate.  181 

white  metal.  181 

PLATINirM, 

alloys,  14,  18 
characteristics,  12 
color,  12 

high  melting  point,  13 
law  regarding  assay,  20 
malleability,  13 
rarity,  12 

resistance  to  acids,  za 
softness,  I3 
sources,  13 
substitute  for,  14 
uses.  13 
Pliqub  a  Jour  Enamel.  Z02 


INDEX 


249 


Precious  Stones, 
artificial.  59 
black  stones.  26 
blue  stones,  24 
brown  stones,  26 
colorless  stones,  22 

cut, 

crown,  81 

culasse.  81 

culet,  8z 

girdle,  8z 

Uble.  81 
cutting  (See  also  "Camoes") 

brillandeening  diamonds,  88 

brilliant  cut.  81 

cabochon,  80.  84. 89 

cutting  and  polishing  diamonds, 

87 

diamond  cleaving.  86 

diamond  sawing,  86 

facets.  80.  8s 

history.  93 

importance,  80 

intaglios,  92 

loss  of  size,  85 

polishing,  85 

rose  cut,  82 

scarab,  93 

slitting.  85 

step  cut.  82 
elements  of  beauty,  28 
"faked"  stones,  60 
green,  23 

hardness,  Mohs  table,  30 
imitation,  6z 
pink,  26 

reconstructed,  60 
red.  23 
setting, 

band,  97 

cabochon  cut,  98 

claw,  95 

collets.  96,  98 

cut  down,  96 


Precious  Stones — Continued 
setting — Continued 

flush,  96 

gallery,  98 

good.  94 

pearls.  98 

Roman,  97 

special.  98 

styles,  95 

thread,  97 

tools,  94 

synthetic,  SO 
test  for  imitation,  62 
transparency, 

opaque,  30 

subtranslucent,  30 

subtransparent  gems,  30 

translucent  gems.  30 

transparent  gems,  30 
valuation  of, 

beauty,  28 

color,  38 

durability.  30 

essential  characteristics,  27 

luster,  29 

misconceptions,  37 

rarity,  31 
violet  or  purple,  25 
way  to  begin  study  of,  2Z 
yellow,  25 
Pulp.  8 
Purple  Sapphire,  25 


Quadruple  Plate,  z8i 
Quartz, 

black,  26 

red,  23 

smoky,  26 
Quartz  Stones,  45,  49.  so,  SL  54. 

S6 
Quintuple  Plate,  z8z 


250 


INDEX 


Raising,   Hollow-warb   (See  "Hol- 
low-ware, commercial  and  hand- 
wrought") 
Rbconstructbd  Stones,  6o 
RBPOUSS&  Work,  71.  131 

enamel,  I03 
Resinous  Luster,  29 
Rhinestones,  61 
Rhodonite,  26,  S7.  132 
Riffles,  s 
Ringfoot,  174 
Rings,  75, 117 

redding,  117.  161 
Rock, 

barren,  4 

paying,  4 
Rolled  Plate  (See  "Gold,  rolled") 
Roman  Goi  d,  79 
Roman  Setting,  97 
Rose  Cut,  82 

RUBELITB,  53 

Ruby, 

asteriated  or  star,  43 
characteristics,  23*  43 
composition,  43 
defects,  44 
imitation,  6 1 
pigeon's  blood,  43 
pink,  26 

rarity  and  value,  43 
sources,  43 
substitutes,  44 
synthetic,  59 


Sandalwood.  136,  137 

Sapphire, 
Bra-Lilian.  53 
characteristics,  24,  44 
hardness,  31.  44 


Sapphire — Continued 

imitation,  61 

lynx  or  cat,  1^4 

purple,  25 

sources,  44 

•ynthetic,  59 

variations  of  color  and  values,  44 

white.  22 

yellow,  25.  40 
Scarabs,  92,  iS9.  160 
Seed  Pearls,  41 
Serpentine,  24 
Sheffield  Hollow-warb, 

decoration,  188 

gilding,  188 

making  of,  186 

manufacture,  185-188 

mounts,  187 
Sheffield  Plate, 

rolling,  186 

the  bedder,  186 

the  flux,  186 
Silver* 

alloys,  16 

as  a  conductor  of  heat,  15 

care  of,  222 

characteristics,  IS 

cleaning,  222 

extracting  from  ore.  16 

fire  scale,  131.  196 

flotation,  16 

hardness  as  compared  with    gold, 

IS 

knowledge  of,  224 

malleabihty  and  ductibility,  IS 

oxidized.  131 

sources,  15,  16 

sterling.  17 

uses,  17 
Silver  Bronze,  215,  216 
Silver  Jewiclry,  17.  127.  I33 
Silver  Ornament-.  221 
Silver  Stain,  17  (See  also  "  Manual 
on  Glass  and  Glassware  ") 


INDEX 


251 


Silverware  Department, 

divisions,  172 

hollow-ware,  172 
Skaifs,  87 

Sluice  (gold  extraction),  s 
Smithsonite.  57 
Smoky  Quartz,  26 
Snarling  Iron,  173 
Solder, 

gold  and  silver,  19,  66,  I74t  I7S 

melting  point,  19 

soft,  19 
Spanish  Jet,  133 
Spinel,  23,  58 

pink,  26 

red,  23 

violet,  25 

yellow,  25 

Spinning,  Hollow-warb,  177.  ipi 

Splendent,  29,  30 

Stakes, 

definition,  66 

for  silverware,  I73 

steel.  187 

tee,  174 

wooden, 174 
Stamps,  Vertical,  8 
Step  Cut,  82 
Sterling  Silver,  16 
Strasse  Stones,  61,  63 
Studs,  126 
Synthetic  Stones,  S9 


Talc,  31 
Teakwood,  220 
Terry,  Eli,  21a 
Theophilus,  70,  116 
Thomas.  Sbth,  212 
Thread  Setting,  97 
Tiffany  Diamond,  33 
Tiger's  Eye,  so 
Tinting  Gold,  78 


Topaz, 

blue,  24 

colors,  22,  24,  25.  4S 

false,  49 

hardness,  31.  4^ 

Oriental,  49 

Saxon,  49 

Scotch,  49 

smoky,  49 

sources,  49 

Spanish,  49 

varieties  of  quartz  known  as,  49 

weight,  48 

white,  22 

worn  by  brunettes,  161 
Tortoise  Shell,  136,  138,  141 

center  of  industry,  14a 

imitations,  142 

sources,  143 
Touchstone,  io 
Tourmaline, 

black,  26 

blue,  24,  53 

brown,  26 

description  and  sources,  53 

green.  24,  38 

pink,  26,  53 

red,  23.  S3 
Triblets,  95 
Triple  Plate,  181 
Tube  Mill,  8 

Turquoise,  25.  31.  132,  163 
description,  49 
imitation,  6a 
matrix,  49.  132 
worn  by  blondes,  161 


Van  Bergubn.  Ludwig.  93 
Variscite.  24 
Veneuil,  a.,  60 
Violet  Spinel,  25 
Vitreous  Luster,  29 


■I 


252 


w 


INDEX 


Wastb  Wax  Procbss.  7a 
Watchbs, 

history,  ax3 

invention  of, 

balance  spring,  313 
main  spring,  a  13 

jewels,  a  10 

men's,  an 

styles,  a  10 

wrist,  a  10 
Watteau,  137 
Waxy  Lustbr,  ap 
Wedding  Rings,  117,  i6i 
Whitby  Jbt,  143 
White  Coral.  a3 
Whitb  Gold  (See  "Gold,  white") 
White  Jade,  33 
Whitb  Metal,  18 z 


White  Opal,  a3 
White  Sapphire,  aa 
White  Topaz,  aa 
Wire, 

beaded, 70 

jewelry,  6g 

seamless  filled,  76 
Wire  Drawing, 

by  hand,  68 

by  machine,  73,  76 

draw  plate.  68 


Ybllow  Sapphire,  as,  49 

z 

Zircon,  2a,  as.  34>  58 


Date  Due 


Kennard 
Jewelry 


DEC  2  2  1933  i'- H/y^^A/v 


AUG  8  133b  h-  ^     -~  - —^ 

AUG  ?.7'"'^6 


ft^>^^'>A 


%^w^ 


% 


FEB  2  6  1940  ^Mm\ 


^  *>, 


!?pOj 


^W^? 


^yH0«l/i(9 


0041442601 


5    1931 


NOV  2 11994 


■ 
■ 


END  OF 
TITLE 


